Posted: October 24th, 2022

Research methods ASSIGNMENT 102

Information to Studying Non-Textbook Texts
Sociology
College of Hawai‘i, M¯anoa
The articles, guide chapters, and first sources assigned on this class should not textual content books and shouldn’t be learn like textbooks. A textbook is concentrated data con densed into a brief quantity of textual content for optimum absorption. It usually takes away complexity
and the messy particulars of how this information was collected, or the broader literature wherein
this information is located and the debates surrounding our understanding of actuality. A textual content guide additionally takes away among the tough work of studying comprehension as a result of every little thing
you learn is essential: The phrases are in daring and there are bullet factors to Help determine the
key details/phrases/factors. There may be additionally little repetition in a textbook, apart from the chapter
summaries or the glossary. Lastly, there may be hardly ever an argument that it’s a must to determine.
Consequently, taking notes on a textbook chapter may be very totally different than taking notes
for a common tutorial guide or scholarly article. Textbook notes may be nearly so long as
the studying itself. Every paragraph in a textbook often has one thing essential to say, so
you may need a sentence for every paragraph. Against this, articles and guide chapters are
inconsistently essential: the introduction and conclusion may be an important elements,
whereas discussions of information and methods may be much less helpful. They are usually considerably
repetitive to be sure you get the primary level they make. They generally current quanti tative knowledge analyses or they use examples to help their foremost argument. In the end, you
can summarize an article or guide chapter in 1-2 paragraphs should you simply wish to give attention to the
key factors. This may be liberating—it’s not an excuse to zone out while you’re studying (if
that occurs, it’s worthwhile to reread what you had been mindlessly studying), nevertheless it does imply that
not every little thing you learn is equally essential. It’s as much as you to determine the essential elements.
This information is meant that will help you by that course of, since it’s a good talent to have and
one you’ll probably must develop for this course.
1 Background Components to Establish Earlier than or As You Learn
These elements make it easier to to know what you might be studying and the right way to strategy it, however you
needn’t take detailed notes on these. In reality, you’ll be able to summarize every of those with only a
few phrases every: e.g., Date: 1988, Form of Textual content: analysis article, Tone: impartial/tutorial.
1.1 Date of Publication
When was the textual content written? That is essential as a result of some materials could also be outdated or it
could also be thought-about a “traditional” as a result of it was an early assertion and spawned a literature.
(Individuals additionally wrote otherwise within the 1940s by the 1970s than they did/do within the 1980s
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by the 2010s. It could possibly be denser again then. Typically in addition they used (insulting)
language we wouldn’t use at this time.) Alternatively, it could be a comparatively new piece of analysis
detailing one thing nobody has mentioned, wherein case, the creator and their supposed readers
are very enthusiastic about no matter is new or totally different about this piece and its contribution to
the texts that got here earlier than. There are additionally items within the center that make attention-grabbing factors,
however should not pathbreaking analysis. The standing of what you might be studying offers you a touch
about why you might be studying it and what to remove. The publication date will even give
you a way of what the creator means by “modern.” It’s also essential to think about
what interval the work was written in as requirements of analysis and the quantity of accessible
analysis change over time (there may be a lot extra now), whereas theories which might be thought-about
vogue additionally change.
1.2 Form of Textual content
We are going to learn a wide range of texts (e.g., major supply v. secondary supply; scholarly journal ar ticle, guide, newspaper, governmental report) on this course and it’s essential to remember
what you might be studying. Most frequently, we’ll learn scholarly texts. Scholarly journal articles
and books written by lecturers are learn for his or her theoretical or empirical contribution—
they both have an attention-grabbing manner of understanding some phenomenon and/or they provide
proof of some phenomenon, usually utilizing jargon.
First, it’s worthwhile to decide whether it is an article or a guide chapter. If it’s a chapter in
a guide, it’s half of a bigger argument the creator is making. Introduction chapters have a tendency
to put out the general argument and a few background supplies, and later chapters have a tendency
to supply proof in help of that argument. Have a look at the chapter quantity to get a way
about whether or not that is an summary or a selected sub-argument. Research articles or journal
articles are printed by lecturers—professors at universities (most frequently)—writing for
different lecturers and making an attempt to reply a selected Question Assignment. In each instances, the creator is making an attempt
to contribute one thing significant to an on-going dialogue or debate “within the literature”
(between students/lecturers) to Help us higher perceive some a part of our world.
Usually, the creator will deal with the state of literature, discussing what different students
have present in earlier research or what their foremost theories have urged. That is usually
said within the introduction and later extra in depth in a bit helpfully labeled “Literature
Evaluate” or “Theoretical Framework” (or generally they use the identify of the idea or
sub-literature to label the part, so that you would possibly see one thing like “The Neo-Institutional
Framework”). This info tells you what the creator knew once they began their
analysis and why they selected the actual strategy they did—often they attempt to comply with
what others have finished earlier than them, however in addition they strive to do that considerably otherwise in order that they
can push our state of data ahead, similar to testing a concept on a unique dataset or a
totally different place/time/inhabitants, or take into consideration how a concept applies to a phenomena individuals
haven’t studied earlier than utilizing that framework. Scholarly journal articles and guide chapters
usually have loads of jargon in them they usually additionally have a tendency to make use of large vocabulary phrases. It could actually
generally be tough to tell apart between these as a result of usually the jargon phrases are made
up of the massive vocabulary phrases, however have a considerably totally different, extra particular definition than
you’ll discover within the dictionary. Basically, you’ll wish to look any phrases you don’t know.
Nonetheless, phrases that the creator tends to repeat lots or actively defines within the textual content are
usually fairly essential and also you wish to preserve monitor of those.
Much less usually, we’ll learn major sources. Major sources (e.g., newspapers, govern 2
ment reviews, books or articles written in a historic interval) provide you with a first-hand account
of one thing by a participant within the course of (steadily utilized in historical past). These may be
extra detailed than scholarly articles; in addition they would possibly assume a unique set of data,
particularly if they’re historic. Their function can be extra assorted than scholarly articles
written for an educational viewers—is it somebody’s diary, a letter, an official report, is it making an attempt
to alter somebody’s thoughts, is it simply describing one thing that occurred in a semi-neutral
manner?
Materials is written and skim for various causes. We is not going to all the time learn a textual content
for the explanation it was written (we’ll learn historic paperwork to know what was
occurring on the time or to higher perceive some facet of society at the moment), nevertheless it’s
essential to recollect why the creator is writing and for whom they’re writing.
1.Three Writer’s Tone
This impacts how a lot it is best to belief the creator and their work. Are they an educational,
an activist, a novice, a journalist? (One’s standing as any of these items doesn’t instantly
grant or take away credibility, nevertheless it’s one thing it’s worthwhile to determine.) Are they writing to a
specific viewers (apart from different lecturers)? Have they got an agenda or different bias?
This could be a bit difficult to determine, specific if the particular person has a unique world view than
you’ve got or is saying one thing you don’t like.
When evaluating an creator’s tone, college students usually have issue with this level:
what’s the scholar’s “opinion” and what’s their “argument” (or thesis). For probably the most half,
students don’t write opinions. Opinions will be knowledgeable or uninformed, however usually they
are about what one believes. Social science scholarship shouldn’t be about what one believes however
what one can be taught from knowledge or proof. For instance, whether or not or not I feel the loss of life
penalty is morally proper (and it’s fairly onerous to supply proof about what’s proper and fallacious),
I can consider whether or not or not the loss of life penalty deters—that’s, prevents crime by scaring
individuals. I’ll or might not suppose it’s morally proper to execute individuals with a view to deter others
(possibly I feel retribution is the one ethical justification or possibly I feel we should always not use
individuals on this utilitarian manner or possibly I feel deterrence is a good suggestion), however I can consider
whether or not or not deterrence works. If I can present executing individuals prevents crime, this isn’t
my opinion—it’s what I’m conveying primarily based on proof. If I feel deterrence is a morally
bankrupt cause for executing individuals, that’s my opinion—I can’t actually give proof for
that.
Whereas students do search to current an argument a few particular subject, this argument
is often primarily based on an Assessment of the information reasonably than their private opinion. Most students
attempt to write in a manner that reveals they don’t actually care which manner the information come out (whether or not
their concept is confirmed or denied). After all, we do hope that our expectations are appropriate
and that we aren’t too far off, and we regularly do have coverage preferences, however most social
scientists aspire to not let their private preferences have an effect on their writing (although they could
have an effect on students’ matters of curiosity).
Some students, nonetheless, will got down to “show” one thing—this in itself is sort of
mistaken since you can not show one thing, however you’ll be able to disprove it. Often, this hap pens the place a scholar is making a normative reasonably than an empirical level: once more, normative
factors are morality claims or worth judgments, generally phrased as ought to statements (we
ought to do it this manner). Empirical statements are primarily based on proof reasonably than opinion.
(Coverage suggestions are often empirical claims that do have a “ought to” element:
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they’re normative within the sense that there’s something they morally help or assume is
good: effectivity, cost-effectiveness, humane therapy, crime prevention, and many others. That’s, they
have some ethical/normative aim, however they empirically (systematically, with proof) deter mine the right way to obtain that aim. In some fields (e.g., regulation, philosophy), normative statements
are inspired; in our area and our associated fields (criminology, sociology, political science,
socio-legal research, economics, historical past), be cautious of students who decide their conclusions
earlier than absolutely analyzing the information or selectively select their proof to benefit their argu ment. (In your individual writing, you in fact wish to deploy examples that help your thesis,
however do deal with counter-examples or items of proof which may harm your argument and
speak about why it doesn’t match. That is what good students do.)
There is a vital caveat: generally students (particularly) suppose they’re writing
in a impartial method, however they don’t seem to be. In reality, a rising variety of students acknowledge
that it’s unimaginable to be impartial and that what we depend as impartial is itself a mirrored image
of energy dynamics and privilege (often the dominant group in society will get to say what
is impartial and no matter they don’t like is biased). Primarily, to some extent our world
view is all the time current. Once you actually perceive this assertion, it’s a bit like seeing the
Matrix for the primary time, and it could actually take a while to wrap your head round. However there’s a
distinction between this comparatively refined level and a extra clear model the place somebody
actually clearly has an ax to grind. That doesn’t imply they aren’t making an essential and
helpful level, nevertheless it ought to give us pause to judge their work (some individuals would argue
that people who find themselves very open about their politics when writing are literally extra sincere
than individuals who fake to be impartial and thus disguise their politics that also would possibly affect
their writing). I’m additionally making an attempt to focus on the distinction between biased and impartial in a
comparatively easy manner as a result of generally individuals learn all tutorial work as biased, particularly
in the event that they don’t just like the findings. However often they’re utilizing biased differently than this
extra refined Matrix-like level. Mainly, there’s a distinction between making an attempt to be impartial
and considering you’ll be able to 100% succeed, making an attempt to be impartial however recognizing your individual biases
(that everybody has) and subsequently being sincere about them, and giving up on any effort to
be impartial.
2 Key Components to Take Notes On
In the end, it is best to take as many notes as crucial that will help you perceive the studying.
If which means absolutely outlining the article or chapter, summarizing the important thing factors of every
part and excerpting key quotations, then try this. Nonetheless, for the needs of this class,
we’ll give attention to the article or chapter’s key components. You probably have a tough time taking notes
on these components, and you don’t perceive the article, then a extra complete notice taking technique is critical, however the finish aim must be to know these key components.
So in actuality, you most likely want fewer notes than you suppose you do—too usually, college students take
loads of notes when actually you solely want to have the ability to reply just a few questions in regards to the
studying.
2.1 Research Question Assignment
What Question Assignment is the creator making an attempt to reply? Why are they doing this undertaking (what
do they search to be taught)? Is there an general puzzle they’re making an attempt to unravel? Some examples
embrace: Why did executions decline all through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
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in England? Why did prisons emerge within the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries?
Why did supermax prisons unfold so quickly throughout the USA? The place did supermax
prisons come from? Why did rehabilitation grow to be much less standard within the 1970s? What was
the impact of California’s Three Strikes Legislation on the crime price? Why did voters help the
Three Strikes Legislation? What do individuals perceive as procedural equity? How do individuals
make sense of harms finished to them? What’s the position of race in courtroom proceedings? These
questions received’t all the time be said explicitly—nor will they all the time be written as a Question Assignment,
with a Question Assignment mark. Typically it’s a must to infer the Question Assignment.
There are some articles that don’t actually have a analysis Question Assignment however as an alternative are
making an attempt to make a bigger level—these are often important not directly. For an instance,
see my article criticizing how some students describe some prisoner behaviors as resistance
with out figuring out the prisoners’ motivations (right here)—studying the primary part is enough to
illustrate the purpose.
2.2 Thesis and Key Findings
What does the creator argue? What’s their foremost level? What do you have to take away
from this textual content? Or, what does the creator count on to be the case? Right here we’re speaking
a few main argument, not subsidiary factors. What’s the overarching rationalization for a
phenomenon? The thesis usually solutions the analysis Question Assignment or not less than some a part of it. The
thesis is often said firstly, within the Introduction, and restated on the finish, in
the Conclusion or Dialogue sections. Nonetheless, the thesis is commonly primarily based on their analyses
of the information—as famous above, the thesis shouldn’t be often one thing somebody determines earlier than
they study the proof. A lot of the textual content will help this general thesis—there are sometimes
sub-arguments or totally different analyses that result in this common conclusion.
In some instances, there is not going to be a transparent thesis or it is going to be a really common, broad
assertion. Virtually all journal articles could have a central thesis, even when they don’t have a
clearly said analysis Question Assignment.
Theses can be pretty summary or in any other case written in a manner that doesn’t actually
sink in until you’ve got some examples to go together with it. Along with figuring out the creator’s
foremost argument, preserve monitor of some key factors the creator makes about their knowledge. Authors
will often have lots to say, so give attention to (1) the general image or foremost argument (thesis)
and (2) a number of examples that illustrate the thesis. You’ll want to have 1-2 sentences
describing the creator’s foremost thesis in addition to 1-2 sentences for 2 to a few details
(every) the creator makes use of for instance or help their thesis (or which they base the thesis on).
These will generally overlap along with your key phrases part.
2.Three Key Phrases
Often, students will create jargon phrases, or use the jargon phrases which have grow to be commonplace
of their area. They often outline these and supply examples of them—generally the entire
paper is meant to supply a key instance for instance a key idea. These key phrases are
essential. You’ll be able to distinguish key phrases by background ideas as a result of they may use
these key phrases repeatedly all through the textual content. You must also preserve monitor of key individuals,
key occasions, key locations/issues. Importantly, these key phrases (individuals, occasions, locations, issues)
should not essential for the sake of memorizing who or what they’re. As a substitute, authors are
very selective about what key issues they talk about and use them for a bigger function. Ask
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your self: Are they an instance of one thing? Had been they the primary in a line of developments,
they usually began that growth? Does it illustrate an idea? If that’s the case, how? Mainly,
why is the creator discussing this factor? Why is it essential for the creator? In a normal
scholarly journal article, you will notice 1-Three key phrases. In any textual content that’s describing a interval
of time, you will notice loads of examples; whereas not all of them can be key phrases, there’ll
be extra key phrases, however it is best to nonetheless distinguish between the primary key time period (often a
idea) and supporting key phrases like occasions, individuals, locations, and issues that illustrate a
key idea or a key argument.
2.four Knowledge and Methodology
It is very important perceive how the creator involves their conclusions. We are going to hardly ever learn
a textual content wherein somebody merely marks an argument that they help with logic. As a substitute,
authors usually deploy some form of proof (knowledge) that they’ve systematically gathered
(by a technique).
Ask your self what sort of knowledge the creator is counting on (e.g., ethnographic notes,
quantitative dataset or numbers, historic/archival texts). How did they acquire this knowledge?
Had been they systematic in how they collected their knowledge—did they depart one thing essential
out? Are they performing a random pattern of individuals, did they give attention to essential individuals,
did they discuss to individuals they might discover? In the event that they carry out a case research—analyzing one entity
(one jail, one state, one police division, one metropolis) in depth—why did they choose that
case? Is it a development setter? (California, New York, and Pennsylvania are sometimes chosen for
these causes.) Is it an outlier? (Texas, Arizona, and Florida are generally chosen for these
causes.) Is it a typical/consultant case?
Subsequent, what was the creator’s methodology? How did they analyze the information at hand? Usu ally, the kind of knowledge informs the strategy. Qualitative knowledge (texts, interviews) are inclined to
require qualitative methods (content material Assessment, interpretative analyses). Quantitative knowledge
(datasets, massive surveys that produce them, interviews when they’re quite a few sufficient)
are sometimes analyzed quantitatively—by regression analyses and different types of analyses
that require a pc program to unravel high-level equations. Typically, students use
each kinds of knowledge and each methods, and generally they use usually quantitative meth ods on qualitative knowledge once they have sufficient of it. Different students are much less clear about
their methods—they have an inclination to take a look at loads of qualitative knowledge—newspaper articles, large courtroom
instances, main legal guidelines—and quantitative knowledge—like jail charges and execution charges—and attempt to
clarify it with out utilizing a standard methodology like content material Assessment, ethnography, participant
commentary, or regression/quantitative Assessment. In some instances, it is a signal of an absence of
rigor (unhealthy analysis); in different instances, so long as they’re systematic about how they collected
and analyzed their knowledge, they’re being extra like an historian (historians don’t like to speak
about their methods).
Understanding the creator’s knowledge and methodology helps us perceive how the creator
got here to the conclusion they did. Knowledge and methodology are just like the instruments the creator used to
create their product. This may be summarized very briefly in your studying notes.
2.5 Hypotheses
Typically, the creator provides hypotheses that they use to check a bigger concept. Often these
are mentioned earlier than the information/methods part, however after the idea/theoretical framework
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part in an article, and they’re usually said fairly clearly. We is not going to learn many
articles that do that (they’re extra widespread in texts that use quantitative analyses), nevertheless it
is value retaining in thoughts.
2.6 Your Critique or Issues
Is there something fallacious with the logic of the argument? Do the information (or findings) help
the conclusion or argument? Are there counterexamples you’ll be able to consider? Total, do you
consider what the creator is saying? Why or why not? This could be a transient sentence (“I discover
this work compelling.”) or a number of paragraphs in case you are so inclined.
Three Different Notes
Part 2 described actually essential take-aways from a given textual content. For a given article, you
ought to be capable of summarize the primary level(s) utilizing notes on these Key Components. Nonetheless,
these are an important to recollect and to remember, however they don’t seem to be the one
essential objects to take notes on. Certainly, the Key Components/abstract objects are issues that
it is best to assessment for the exams. Nonetheless, for a given textual content, you’ll probably profit from
taking further notes of some form, which is able to make it easier to to know a textual content, be extra
ready for lecture, or higher recall the article if it’s worthwhile to return to it later.
Completely different individuals have totally different types of taking notes, and folks might even change
how they take notes over time or throughout kinds of textual content. Some texts are comparatively straightforward to
summarize briefly, others are extra summary and require loads of highlighting and extra
note-taking. Usually talking, highlighting a textual content is a good suggestion—underlining, utilizing a
highlighter, making notations within the margins. These will be made digitally or on the printed
out textual content—however do not forget that you needn’t print out the texts for this class. You probably have
an iPad, the app iAnnotate works properly for highlighting and notice taking. In your pc,
sure variations of Adobe (Mac or PC) or Preview (Mac) allow you to spotlight the textual content.
My private technique: Whatever the textual content, I all the time spotlight and/or make notations
within the margins. If one thing is especially attention-grabbing, I put a star subsequent to it. If the creator
makes a very essential level, I write a verify mark subsequent to it. If the creator defines
an essential idea, I write, “defn” within the margin. Along with these, I often underline
or spotlight (once I’m studying one thing on my pc) or put a vertical line alongside the
margin subsequent to essential textual content and underline actually essential sentences. Relying on
the textual content, I additionally take notes individually—generally within the margins, generally on a separate
piece of paper (or an index card or a composition guide). Typically, my notes are simply
the abstract and I can return and skim by the highlighted sections if I would like extra
info. Different occasions, I take extra detailed notes—the extra attention-grabbing or dense a textual content,
the extra notes I make. Typically I discover it helpful to document the topic headings the creator
makes use of after which take my notes inside these topic headings. As a lot as potential, I attempt to
rephrase authors’ factors in my very own phrases—often I can summarize higher this manner and save
myself from an excessive amount of writing/typing—however I will even document actually essential statements in
the creator’s personal phrases if it’s a really complicated or extraordinarily well-written assertion.
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four What in case you are fully misplaced?
Bear in mind: It’s okay if you don’t perceive 100% of the assigned textual content. It’s usually dense
and summary materials. Moreover, you’ll not be requested about or quizzed or examined on
every little thing; as an alternative, we’ll principally give attention to Large Image materials. A number of the readings will
make extra sense throughout or after lecture, and in the event that they don’t, are available to workplace hours. The
essential a part of all of that is that you just get higher at studying these supplies over time
(which is able to occur so long as you keep it up and follow).
In the intervening time, what do you do while you come throughout sentences, paragraphs, or
entire sections of an article or guide chapter that don’t make sense? Put a Question Assignment mark
subsequent to the sentence, paragraph, or part, and preserve going. Typically an creator will
write one thing in a convoluted vogue, however while you see the concrete instance or hear
the convoluted factor described in barely totally different language elsewhere within the studying, it can
make extra sense. So don’t cease and stare on the phrases on the web page making an attempt to decipher their
that means; reasonably, preserve going, after which come again and take a look at it when you’ve learn the remaining
of the article. Hopefully then it can make sense. However even then, it’s okay if it doesn’t: you
nonetheless have lecture and workplace hours to determine it out.
What if you end up scuffling with the entire article or chapter? Step again and
give attention to figuring out probably the most common facets of the article: What was the article about? (a)
What factor was the main focus? Substantively talking, was it an article about prisons, crime
developments, a climate station, a bunch of combined organizations? (b) What had been these items
doing—why are we specializing in them? Had been the prisons rising as a brand new growth,
had been they responding to some change? Had been the crime developments affected by some issue? Had been
the workers within the climate station affecting predictions? Had been organizations responding
in numerous or associated methods to some new regulation? Attempt to give attention to probably the most concrete elements of
the article and determine why they matter. From there, it is best to be capable of determine
the analysis Question Assignment and thesis—it ought to have one thing to do with the primary issues the
article is about and what they’re doing. After that, take into consideration smaller concrete particulars as
examples of bigger arguments. Once you begin to get misplaced, ask your self how this pertains to
the primary level of the textual content.
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Studying Notes Template
Final Title of Writer(s)
Date/Yr of Publication
Textual content Title
*Observe: This isn’t the identify of the journal that an article is printed in.
Form of Textual content – Verify All that Apply
Major Supply
Newspaper Article
Authorities Report
Scholarly Journal Article
Legislation Evaluate Article
Different Sort of Article
Tutorial Ebook Chapter
Different Ebook Chapter
Different
Writer’s Tone
Empirical/Impartial
Normative/Biased
Coverage Suggestion
Different
Knowledge and Methodology – Verify All that Apply
Ethnographic/Participant Remark
Interview
Content material Assessment
Historic/Archival Data
Historic Narrative
Unclear
Survey Knowledge
Census Knowledge
Regression or Different Excessive-Stage Statistical,
Laptop-based Assessment
Traits, Averages, Counts, or Primary De scriptive Statistics
Different
When/The place does the research happen? That’s, when/the place did the information
come from?
Decade or century:
Location/setting:
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Research Question Assignment (1-2 Sentences)
Thesis (1-2 Sentences + 2-Three Supporting Arguments/Examples)
Key Ideas/Phrases/Examples
Critique (1 or Extra Sentences)
Different Notes
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