Posted: October 20th, 2022

Why not women seafarers? Towards a development strategy for the recruitment and retention of women seafarers in cargo ships with particular reference to the Republic of Korea

Why not women seafarers?
Towards a development strategy for the recruitment and retention of
women seafarers in cargo ships with particular reference to the
Republic of Korea
By
SOHYUN, JO
Republic of Korea
A dissertation submitted to the World Maritime University in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
In
MARITIME AFFAIRS
(MARITIME SAFETY ENVIRONMENT ADMINISTRATION)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to thank my organization, the Korea Institute of
Maritime and Fisheries Technology (KIMFT), my special supporter President Shin-Gil
Kang, Professor Kyung-Suk, Kim, all the KIMFT professors and staff, provided me with
great opportunity to expand the horizons of my knowledge and global culture at World
Maritime University, Sweden.
I am extremely grateful to my supervisor Professor, Neil Bellefontaine and Professor
Daniel Seong-Hyeok Moon for supporting and guiding me through the path of
knowledge and giving in-deph comments. My special thanks to Helpant Professor
Clive Cole for being understanding and giving meticulous supervision considering my
erratic shedule, without which, this dissertation would not have been possible.
I would like to express my gratefulness to all respondents who participated in this
research survey from former women seafarers, women seafarers and varied shipping
companies and Maritime Universities for their contributions, interviews and experience,
without which the project would not have been completed.
I am also thankful to my library member, WMU colleagues, Miss Vivien Jane CAY,
Masashi SUGOMORI; we have been through a lot together to study as encouraging,
sharing information and valuable advice with each other. Also I would like to personally
thank especially my best friend, Enrico Dagostini, who has encouraged my study and
Helped me in innumerable ways.
Finally, my heartfelt thanks and sincere gratitude goes out to my parents In-Sik Jo and
Hea-Suk Lee who live in my country, the Republic of Korea, for their tireless efforts,
encouragement and guidance in achieving success in life.
ŝǀ
ABSTRACT
Title of Dissertation : Why not women seafarers?
Towards a development strategy for the recruitment and
retention of women seafarers in cargo ships with particular
reference to the Republic of Korea
Degree : Master of Science
Women seafarer numbers are increasing in the world’s fleets in the position of officers,
ratings and pilots in many types of merchant ships. According to recent study, women
represent only 1-2 percent of the 1.25 million seafarers in the world. However, despite
increasing women seafarers working onboard are only rising slightly, there are very few
studies concerning women seafarers on cargo ships.
The prime objective set for thesis is to identify what are the women seafarers problems
and concerns regarding employment on cargo ships. From the cargo ship point of view,
the question then is how to provide sufficient solutions for women seafarers in the maledominated workplace of the ship through Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
activities.
The methodologies of study combine qualitative and quantitative research methods. The
progress of research is to conduct a survey by asking a consistent set of key opinion
leaders from the Rep. of Korea. Moreover, to evaluate the elements of the result, the
research explores the way in which we should consider giving priority to aspects of the
problem. Finally, based on the terms of CSR, the author recommends measures to
support the needs of women when they are employed aboard the world’s merchant
vessels.
KEY WORDS: Women seafarers, Shortage seafarers, Corporate Social Responsibility
(CSR), Gender issues, Discrimination, Sexual harassment, Working Environment.
ǀ
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
1.1 Preamble
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Dissertation Methodology
ǀŝ
3.1.1 Employment of women by ship type and distribution by rank
3.2 Current Korean women seafarers’ occupation in the global merchant ship market
3.2.1 The age of women seafarers
3.2.2 Type of ship employing women seafarers
3.3 Preference trend of Maritime University students regarding seafaring
CHAPTER 4 Policy and practices of imo towards female employment

4.1 International Maritime Organization
4.1.1 Limitation of these Programmes
CHAPTER 5 Survey
5.1 Background to the Survey Questionnaire
ǀŝŝ
6.6 Relatively low social recognition
6.7 Job dissatisfaction
CHAPTER 7 Corporate social responsibility
7.1 The shipping industry through CSR activities
ǀŝŝŝ
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Status of graduated Maritime University female students͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϵ
Table 2 The number of world fleets by ship size (GRT) and ship type in 2010͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϭϰ
Table 3 Setting of standard manning numbers by ship type and size ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϭϱ
Table 4 An estimated demand for seafarers of the world fleets in 2010͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϭϱ
Table 5 Predicted demands for seafarers in the world fleets in 2020͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϭϳ
Table 6 The percentage of Korean seafarers working on Nationality vessels͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϭϴ
Table 7 Statistics for the unemployment of seafarers per year in Korea ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϭϵ
Table 8 Status of seafarers by supply and demand in Korea, in 2007͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϮϬ
Table 9 Comparison between status of Merchant Ships and available Seafarers in 2003-2008 ͘͘͘͘͘͘ Ϯϭ
Table 10 Women seafarers employed in shipping companies, 2010͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ Ϯϵ
Table 11 Fellowship programme by TC ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϯϴ
Table 12 Overview of the project research ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϰϬ
Table 13 The age profile of respondents͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϰϭ
Table 14 The current occupation of respondents ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϰϮ
Table 15 Type of ship with women onboard͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϰϱ
Table 16 Rank (Left) and career (Right) onboard ship͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϰϲ
Table 17 Main motivation to select a seafaring job ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϰϳ
Table 18 The method of control difficulty ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϱϬ
Table 19 Result of Cross Tabs analysis͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϱϬ
Table 20 The difficult elements of seafaring at sea͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϱϭ
Table 21 Strategy to improve and develop the working environment ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϱϮ
Table 22 Priority elements for improvement of shipping company ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϱϰ
Table 23 Korea’s female labor market participation rate͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϲϳ
Table 24 Female labour market participation rate by nation in 2004͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϲϳ
Table 25 Satisfaction with employees through company ability͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϴϬ
ŝdž
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Historical development of a number of fleets in the world ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϭϯ
Figure 2 Historical development of a number of fleets in the world- Tanker, Bulk carrier,
Containership and Multipurpose Fleet͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϭϯ
Figure 3 Prospects for future world fleets until 2020, based on the actual number of the world
commercial fleets 2010͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϭϲ
Figure 4 Statistics for the unemployment of seafarers per year in Korea͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϭϵ
Figure 5 Prospect for supply and demand of seafarers in the Korean maritime labor market͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϮϮ
Figure 6 Employment of women by ship type and distribution by rank in the world ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ Ϯϳ
Figure 7 Age profile of women seafarers (Lift) by Belcher et al., (2003) and Careers profile of
Korean women seafarers (Right)͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϯϭ
Figure 8 The status of employment of women graduated students of MMU (2002 – 2008) – Left ͘͘ ϯϯ
Figure 9 Preference of future employment students of MMU, 2008 – Right ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϯϯ
Figure 10 Experience problem with colleagues ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϰϵ
Figure 11 Opinion profile͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϱϱ
Figure 12 New paradigm of CSR ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ ϴϭ
dž
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BIMCO Baltic and International Maritime Council
CSR Corporate Social Responsibility
ILO International Labour Organization
IMO International Maritime Organization
ISF International Shipping Federation
ITCP Organization’s Integrated Technical Co-operation Programme
ITF International Trade Federation
IWMS Integration of Women in the Maritime Sector
JITI & NF Japan International Transport Institute & the Nippon Foundation
KIMFT Korea Institute of Maritime and Fisheries Technology
KMU Korea Maritime University
KSWEC Korea Seafarer’s Welfare & Employment Center
MET Maritime Education and Training Institutions
MMU Mokpo Maritime University
POEA Philippine overseas Employment Administration
SMU China’s Shanghai Maritime University
SPSS Statistical package for the social science
SIRC Seafarers International Research Centre
VTS Vessel Traffic Service
WID Women in Development
UN United Nations
ϭ
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Preamble
In 2000, a woodchip carrier grounded and bottom touched in Bell Bay, Tasmania. When
a ship passed near Clay Bay, suddenly the Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) operator called
the ship to inform of very poor visibility over the channel due to dense fog in the
particular areas. However, unfortunately, it was too late as visibility was almost zero
when the ship faced fog near Clay Bay.
As soon as the VTS call was received, the pilot and duty officer obviously were
embarrassed to figure a ship’s position out of the radar so quickly. In an instant, the ship
ran aground on the buoy of channel with a whole starboard side shell and bottom.
Finally, the ship’s damage extended from her starboard bow to the stern side shell and
bottom. The worst damage was a hole in the bottom fore peak tank.
“ After the accident, I was glassy-eyed from shock. I was timely afraid of being
involved in a ship’s accident during my duty time on my first voyage. My heart
was great beating and I was in a miserable state from this accident. If possible, I
wanted to escape this entire horrible situation and go home. Other reason, It
seemed that someone were likely to lash out and press me close. And then, they
could prove a taboo from women being onboard a ship, which has solely withstood
a traditional male dominated occupation. Because many man believe that women
board is a taboo in the shipping world, as it might come a terrible ship disaster or
accident of a serious and/or minor nature”
A duty officer recounted these situations and she said,
“ No one blamed me the as the direct cause of accident, however, I became a
workaholic working on my own, I became rude, straightforward, no makeup, and
Ϯ
try to be masculine since the accident happened. I shaved my head and wore a
dirty boiler suit while working as a sign I was part of them. Yes, I tried to not
show my feelings and emotions and covered them up. I didn’t apply to take a my
vacation during my 18 months onboard the ship due given I was afraid that if I did
apply, the company would not employ me anymore”
Unfortunately, the duty officer is the author of this paper. The author intends to
investigate the question as to why a duty officer who is a women seafarer felt scared and
tried to exhibit a masculine approach to her work place instead of accepting her feminine
sexuality in this situation. The author intends to investigate the issue of female seafarers
and how they are perceived onboard ship and would then like to find sufficient answers
leading to me conclusion of this paper.
1.2 Introduction
Women seafarer numbers are increasing in the world’s fleets in the position of officers,
ratings and pilots in many types of ship such as cruise ships, bulk carriers and tankers.
According to a recent study, Belcher, P., Sampson H., Thomas M., Veiga J., and Zhao M.
(2003), women represent only 1-2 percent of the 1.25 million seafarers in the world.
Moreover, the study indicates that 94 percent of women are employed on passenger
ships1
and 6 percent are employed on cargo ships.
However, despite the slight increase of women seafarers working onboard, there are few
studies concerning women seafarers indicating that there has been insufficient progress
especially on cargo ships. Kitada (2009b) states that there is very little information

1
The study by Belcher et al. (2003) found 94 percent of women are employed on passenger ships. If
passenger shipping is divided into cruise and ferry ship types, 68 percent of all the women are employed
on ferries and 26 percent on cruise ships.
ϯ
regarding women seafarers in general, including the actual population size. In addition,
the author has been researching and investigating these studies regarding women
seafarers, however, most of these studies focus on passenger ships or cruise ships, not
cargo ships. It is difficult to find relevant studies regarding women seafarers in the world,
including in Korea.
The only available statistical analyses regarding to women seafarers are published by
Belcher, et al. in 20032 . In accordance with ILO (2007), it introduced the above
mentioned study as more comments highlight a new ILO study as well as describing that
the study assesses the overall aspects of a women seafarer’s life; including how many
women are employed aboard ships, and then nationality by group.
In the case of Korea, despite women being aboard ship since 1995, all aspects of the
study of Korean women seafarers has not sufficiently addressed policies on how to
women seafarers onboard. Few existing studies are available so far regarding reality for
many women who work onboard on cargo ships. Possibly it is natural that these studies
focus on male or overall seafarers rather than women seafarers because women coming
onboard in just a few past years as a pioneer step and occupy 1-2 percent among all the
seafarers of the world.
However, despite a few studies regarding women seafarers especially on cargo ships, in
order to put more women at sea, the author would say that it is necessary to carry out
research and address firstly where women seafarers are. In other words, attempting to
harness the data and the results of research regarding women seafarers, it might be
understood exactly how women seafarers’ world is evolving.

Ϯ Belcher, P., Sampson H., Thomas M., Veiga J., and Zhao M. (2003). Women seafarers: Global
employment policies and practices, the first to focus on contemporary women seafarers. Geneva;
International Labor Office. See reference.
ϰ
In accordance with my literature review and relevant survey through both questionnaires
and in-depth interviews, this study reveals that some women seafarers continue to face
discrimination, prejudice and difficulties to work in the male-dominated workplace
(Aggrey, 2000) of cargo ships. Even though some women seafarers are employed
onboard, most of them tend to transfer their occupation to on shore under shipping
enterprises. What are the most significant women seafarer problems on ships? What are
the solutions and problems concerning recruitment and retention of a woman seafarer’s
occupation? Is not the ship a proper work place for women?
The prime objective set for this thesis is to identify what women seafarers problems are
and concerns employment on cargo ships. The cargo ship point of view, the question
then is how to provide solutions for women seafarers in the male-dominated workplace
of the ship through Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)3
activities. Therefore, it is
worth noting overwhelmingly that to achieve this change dynamic, there is a need for
attitudinizing change towards recruiting women as seafarers. Such changes, if
implemented, might also attract more women to seafaring as a career. Further, Women
are an underutilized and available resource of maritime talent which the shipping sector
needs to draw the balance upon to seafarer’s shortfall (ILO, 2007).
Thus, it might be worthwhile to conduct some solutions and policies concerning the
recruitment and retention of women into the seafarer labour market in Korea; as well as
promote plans for women seafarers in the future.
1.3 Dissertation Methodology
Therefore, to achieve the full objective of this dissertation it is intended to address the
main issues surrounding the recruitment and retention of women seafarers in Korea,

3
See Chapter 7, Corporate Social Responsibility
ϱ
while providing some analysis of women seafarers’ statistics or/and databases. The
methodologies of study combine qualitative and quantitative research methods. The
progress of research is to conduct a survey by asking some a consistent set of key
opinion leaders from the Rep. of Korea. Through telephone and questions, in-depth
interviews were used as the major means of research according to individual participant
preference. Although the response of questionnaires and data were only collected from a
limited number of seafarers, these individuals were carefully selected with the view of
considerable experience at sea.
With this result, the author conducted a Frequency Analysis and Cross Tabs Analysis in
Chapter 5, ‘Survey’ on respondents of the sample questionnaires through a Statistical
package for social sciences (SPSS version 12 for Korean)4
. In addition, the research
seeks the best solution among those various elements from the statistical analysis tools
in Chapter 6. This step can help to make the right decision of how to find the one that
best suits their needs and what support could be provided in order to improve life for
women seafarers. Moreover, to evaluate the elements of the result, the research will
explore the way in which we should consider giving priority to the aspects of the
problem. Finally, based on the terms of CSR in Chapter 7, the author recommends
measures to support the needs of women when they are employed aboard the world’s
merchant vessels in Chapter 8.
1.4 Woman seafarers’ historiography in the world
According to Belcher et al. (2003), in the post-1945 period women began to appear
regularly as crew members aboard cargo ships, most often on Swedish ships as
stewardesses, cooks and radio officers. The study reviewed the history of women

4
Statistical package for the social science (SPSS): computer program used for statistical analysis.
ϲ
seafarers has existed over long period. In the late 1960s, a significant event was the first
women that were recruited as officer cadets and this was mainly in response to the
shortfall of male seafarers in Europe. It could be noted these instances may have been
seen as pioneering steps, yet the fact remains that companies still preferred to hire male
seafarers. From the mid-1980s, the shipping industry lessened this interest in recruiting
women because of an overcapacity problem with a new source of male seafarers from
Asia and Europe. In the late 1990s, when the industry began to experience more serious
difficulties in recruiting men as seafarers, attention did again return to the recruitment of
women. Since the late 1990s, there has been a growing interest in training and recruiting
women seafarers. This is largely connected to the perceived shortages of officers in the
world fleets, including the Republic of Korea.
1.4.1 Participation of women seafarers in Korea
The shipping and maritime industry overall has been dramatically developed since the
Korean War in the 1950s. Industrial restructuring has occurred at least five times over
the past 30-40 years since the Korean government adopted ‘a strategy of economic
development’ in 1964 (Cho, 2002). The Korean government came to the conclusion that
a drastic change of policy was necessary to overcome those economic difficulties after
the Korean War. Moreover, since then, the Korean government has recognized that the
key sector for industrial growth in general was to invest in the maritime industries (Kim,
1999). Consequently, the Korean government paid attention to the importance of
developing and investing in shipping and the maritime field for the country’s rapid
economic and industrial growth. For these reasons, the Korean government began to
concentrate on this growth strategy. They set up industrial facilities; established new
ports, larger ship building yards, container terminals, a related logistic infrastructure, as
well as wisely investing in shipping companies, shipbuilding businesses, and port &
logistics professional education (Ibid).
ϳ
As a result of these efforts, Korea’s maritime economy and technology grew fast in the
1960s to 1990s. Consequently, with the outcome of the maritime industry’s fast
economic and technological growth, the demand for maritime labor increased, , at that
time, as the Korean government had made efforts to strengthen technical and
professional training courses for related merchant work and thus, the number of
suppliers who wanted to seek marine jobs was also sufficient. However, the numbers of
job seekers did not satisfy the overall demand. The government acknowledged there
were still all of these problems to be ironed out, so they began to make an active effort to
search for solutions to the problem relevant to the supply of and demand for seafarers.
One of the solutions was to allow female students to enter the Korea College of
Maritime Sciences of Korean Maritime University5
(KMU) that was a male-dominated
institution for men until 1991. This new policy was based on changing social trends and
the needs to give an opportunity for high quality education to future workers. Further the
new government policy wanted to improve and develop gender equality. Consequently,
one female student entered the KMU in 1991 and graduated in 1995 as the first woman
Navigation Officer (3rd class) in Korea.
1.4.2 Breaking the all male-tradition in the maritime sector
As previously mentioned, the KMU was opened to female students in1991 and, since
then, the five female students graduated from the University in 1995, and contributed by
working onboard as deck officers or engineer officers in major shipping companies. The
female seafarers have been a significant starting point for women by encouraging and

5
Korea College of Maritime Sciences of Korean Maritime University is the first national university
established by the Korean government in order to advance the country’s development, as well as to train
and educates manpower with a variety of skills in maritime industry in Korea. Students who have passed
the national exam for the Marine Navigation Officer’s License while attending the class are eligible to
acquire the license at the time of graduating from Korea College of Maritime Sciences of Korean
Maritime University (source from : http://english.hhu.ac.kr/english/03/01.jsp)
ϴ
installing confidence in them so they are able to go to sea as equal seafarers in a male
dominated environment. They have broken the all-male tradition which was a place
perceivably off-limits to females. Unsurprisingly, this of course was considered a
significant social issue and came to the forefront in the Korean media. The subject of
women seafarers in Korea as well in the global sense is no longer a new one.
Thereafter, female students have continued to graduate from the KMU and also the
Mokpo Maritime University (MMU). Currently, the total number of female students is
887 women as identified in Table 1. However, according to this research6
, women who
have obtained seafarer-officer license and currently work onboard ship represent no
more than approximately 50 women7
in the specific period time until 2010, 5.6 percent
of females having graduated from the Maritime University in Korea accordingly.
1.4.3 The Status of Women graduating from the maritime university in Korea
The total number of graduated female students from the Korea College of Maritime
Sciences is 464 today according to Table 1. Further female admission was limited to 10
percent of the students entering the Korea College of Maritime Sciences among 400
students total capacity per year under the entrance regulation policy. However, under a
more recent entrance regulation policy it has currently admitted up to 15 percent females
from the total number of students.
In the case of MMU, it has allowed up to 10 percent female admissions since 1999. The
total number of graduated female students is 388 female as identified in Table 1.
However, MMU announced in 2008 its plans to enhance the opportunity for admissions
of female students based upon a recommendation of the National Human Rights

6
This telephone survey included major shipping companies, seafarers manning companies during 21-24
June, 2010.
7
See chapter 3 ‘The trend of women seafarers’ employment.
ϵ
Commission of Korea, which supports a progressive increase in female students (Kim,
2008).
Table 1 Status of graduated Maritime University female students
Korea Maritime University Mokpo Maritime University
Male
students
Women
students
Percentage
% Total
Navigation
specialization
women
students
Engine
specialization
women
student
Total
women
students
1995 341 1 0.3 342
1996 376 5 1.3 381
1997 364 6 1.6 370 17 7 24
1998 354 16 4.5 370 10 3 13
1999 355 23 6.5 378 16 6 22
2000 332 33 9.9 365 22 3 25
2001 301 49 16.3 350 34 7 41
2002 351 48 13.7 399 37 14 51
2003 334 20 6.0 354 22 16 38
2004 351 21 6.0 372 17 14 31
2005 329 20 6.1 349 17 14 31
2006 352 30 8.5 382 21 19 40
2007 314 30 9.6 344 15 15 30
2008 322 57 17.7 379 21 21 42
2009 321 56 17.4 377
2010 346 49 14.2 395
Total 5443 464 8.5 5907 388
Source 1: Hwang S.J., IM N.K & Bae C.O. (2008). A study on analysis of the situation of employment
for women at Mokpo Maritime University. The Korean Society Marine Environment and Study, 2008, 63-
67.
Source 2: Mokpo University & Korea Maritime University
Further, there are similar examples of low female participation in global marine and
nautical schools or Institutions, where the ratio of male to female students represented is
ϭϬ
95:5 in the Netherlands and 96:4 in both Germany and the United Kingdom (Belcher et
al., 2003).
According to the study by Belcher et al.(2003), it is observed that the proportion of
enrolled female students among MET institutions in 2001 averages 10.8 percent females
against the total number of students among 13 MET institutions 8
. In fact, its data
includes the crucial meaning that the participation of females in MET institutions is at a
low level in general. As aforementioned in paragraph 1.4.2, the total number of women
seafarers currently employed on cargo ships compared to the total number of female
graduated students currently seafarers employed on cargo ships, represents only a few
percent. The author raises the question as to how the female work force can be more
efficiently utilized in the maritime labor market; is being the main factor to increase
employment and ensure women are retained to support an equal gender work
environment as discussed in later chapters.
This research explores what estimate the supply and demand for seafarers is in terms of
global and national prospects in Chapter 2. Next in Chapter 3, how many women
seafarer are employed in worldwide merchant ships by type is classified of ship and
average number of seafarers, as well as in the Korea labour market. Also the preference
trend of maritime university students regarding seafaring is presented. Further, in
Chapter 4, the international effort to develop and improve women’s capacity through
IMO’s activities inter alia is considered with a focus focuses on the effort toward women
in development by the Technical Cooperation Committee (TC). Consequently, the
author has conducted a survey of women who have experience at sea and are current

8
13 MET institutions: FNB(Spain), SMU(China), CIAGA(Brazil), ITUMF(Turkey), AMA(Belgium),
TUMM(Japan), FMST(Slovenia), ENMM(France), SMS(Sweden), CMU(Romania), SIMA(Denmark),
ENIDH(Portugal), GCMS(United Kingdom), Source from Belcher, P., Sampson H., Thomas M., Veiga
J., & Zhao M. (2003). Women Seafarers: global employment policies and practices. pp 14, table 5
(Women students enrolled in MET institutions in 2001).
ϭϭ
seafarers to identify the problems relating to recruitment and retention of female
seafarers in Chapter 5. In Chapter 6, the author analyses the result of questionnaires and
in-depth interviews to provide a breakthrough to these problems, as well as the way to
improve the work environment surrounding these seafarers lives at sea.
Finally, through the results of the survey and analysis, the author responds answers in
Chapter 7 according to previous questions from the beginning of this paper: why a duty
officer who is a female seafarer would feel afraid so that she tries to be masculine in her
work place instead of accepting her feminine characteristics as in a normal work
environment. However, the conclusion focuses on CSR to improve the working
environment for women seafarers, in order to recruit and retain them as seafarers.
ϭϮ
Chapter 2 The worldwide labor market for seafarers

2.1 The present world commercial fleets
80 percent of world trade is carried by seaborne trade (UNCTAD, 2009). Without
reservation, the seaborne trade by commercial fleets is a crucially important factor to
transfer high volumes of cargo. Under such circumstances, the number of seafarers is
important as contributors that enables us to maritime safety, and prevent pollution keep
environment clean.
Before examining the worldwide maritime labour market for seafarers, a review of
today’s’ commercial fleet trends is in order. According to Bansal (2009), shipping
tonnage increased from 85 million gross tonnages in 1948 to over 685 million gross
tonnages by 2007.
A other report, the Review of Maritime Transport by UNCTAD (2009), reported in 2009
that the deadweight tonnage of oil tankers increased by 2.5 percent and that of bulk
carriers by 7.0 percent from January 2008 to 2009. The fleet of container ships grew by
17.3 million deadweight, or 11.9 percent. Other specialized types of ships have also
indicated high growth rates such as the tonnage of liquefied gas carriers grew by 21.1
percent, and that of offshore supply vessels grew by 9.1 percent. The tonnage on general
cargo ships has increased by 7 percent, dry and liquid bulk tonnage by 52 and 48 percent
relatively, and containerized tonnage by an impressive 154 percent.
Also according to Jordan (2010), an analysis of global fleet statistics for the
International Union of Marine Insurance in 2010, the number of tanker fleets, bulk
carrier fleets and container fleet have continued their growth as identified in Figure 1. In
addition, Figure 2 describes the combination of all the number of merchant fleets in
ϭϯ
order to identify this vividly. Figures indicate the trends of world fleet growth and vessel
types.
Tanker fleet (DWT) Bulkcarrier fleet (DWT) Containership and Multipurpose
Fleet (DWT)
Source: Jordan D.K., World fleet information: Global fleet statistics for IUMI as at 1st January 2010.
Note: Each fleet is on the left-hand axis and deliveries and scrapping figures are on the right-hand axis.
Figure 1 Historical development of a number of fleets in the world
Source: Jordan D.K., World fleet information: Global fleet statistics for IUMI as at 1st January 2010.
Note: All fleet totals are on the left-hand axis and deliveries and scrapping figures are on the right-hand
axis.
Figure 2 Historical development of a number of fleets in the world- Tanker, Bulk carrier,
Containership and Multipurpose Fleet
ϭϰ
Overall, the world fleet has only slightly increased nowadays as evidenced in the above
data and figures. Meanwhile, the international shipping industry is facing a shortage of
seafarers despite the increase in the worldwide fleet, which is a similar phenomenon
affecting the Korean maritime labor market. Absolutely, the growing shortage of
seafarers has become a hot issue of global concern in recent years.
2.2 Demands for seafarers in the world
2.2.1 Calculation of the demand for seafarers 2010 and 2020
A new study by the Japan International Transport Institute & the Nippon Foundation
(JITI & NF) (2010) identified how the unexpected elements of recent history have
affected what was previously taken to be a major shortfall in seafarers (Leander, 2010).
According to the study of JITI & NF which has been referred to Lloyd’s RegisterFairplay, the total number of world fleets in January 2010 was 35,623 ships as per Table
2.
Table 2 The number of world fleets by ship size (GRT) and ship type in 2010
Gross Tonnage Tanker Bulk Carrier Dry Cargo &
Passenger
Total
2,000-4,999 2,432 367 6,185 8,984 25.2 %
5,000-9,999 1,454 374 4,206 6,034 16.9 %
10,000-49,999 3,444 6,249 5,976 15,669 44.0 %
50,000-99,999 1,436 981 1,461 3,878 10.9 %
100,000-149,999 248 145 104 497 1.4 %
150,000-1999,999 499 37 20 556 1.6 %
200,000 and over 4 0 1 5 0.0 %
Total (%) 9,517(26.7) 8,153(22.9) 17,953(50.4 ) 35,623(100) 100.0 %
Source: Japan International Transport Institute & the Nippon Foundation (2010) based on Lloyd’s
Register – Fairplay, Oct. 2009
ϭϱ
Thus, according to the JITI & NF (2010) study, it is estimated that the demand for
seafarers in the world fleets in 2010 as multiplied by the setting of standard manning
numbers of ship type and size with the total number of world fleets is as follows in Table
2 and Table 3. The result of the multiplication of Table 2 and in Table 3 is as identified
Table 4.
Table 3 Setting of standard manning numbers by ship type and size
Officer Rating
Ship type
Deck Engine Deck Engine Catering
Total
2,000-7,999 GT 4 4 4 4 2 18
VLCC 5 5 6 7 3 26
LNG Tanker 5 6 8 8 3 30
LPG/Chemical/Product
Tanker
4 5
5 5
3 22
Other Tanker 4 5 5 5 3 22
Bulk Carrier 4 4 5 5 3 21
Container 4 5 5 6 3 23
8,000GRT and over
Other Dry Cargo 4 4 5 5 3 21
Source: Japan International Transport Institute & the Nippon Foundation (2010).
Therefore, the demand for seafarers in 2010 identified in Table 4 basis on the capacity of
ship is 1,093,968 seafarers including the backup ratio of seafarers as 50 percent.
Table 4 An estimated demand for seafarers of the world fleets in 2010
2,000-
7,999GT
8,000GT and
over
Subtotal Backup (50%) Total
Officer 103,192 193,511 296,703 148,352 445,055
Rating 128,990 303,619 432,609 216,305 648,914
Total 232,182 497,130 729,312 364,656 1,093,968
Source: Japan International Transport Institute & the Nippon Foundation (2010).
ϭϲ
Further, the study of JITI & NF (2010) shows the 2010 number of seafarers and the
demand for seafarers that will be needed in 2020. The demand is calculated considering
the legal setting of standard manning numbers by ship type and size as shown in Figure 3.
Furthermore between 2010 and 2020 is expected an annual average growth rate of the world
fleet of 0.7 percent9
. It is calculated that there will be 35,623 ships in the world fleet in
2010, and it is estimated that the number of the world fleet will increase up to 38,197
ships by 2020, as identified in Figure 3.
In addition, the demand for seafarers in 2020 was calculated multiplying the values of
Table 3 (Setting of standard manning numbers by ship type and size) and the expected
annual average growth of the world fleet of 0.7 percent. Therefore, the study of JITI &
NF (2010) estimated the demand for seafarers in 2020 to be 445,055 for officers and
648,914 for ratings as identified in Table 5.
Source: Japan International Transport Institute & the Nippon Foundation (2010) based on
Lloyd’s Register – Fairplay, Oct. 2009
Figure 3 Prospects for future world fleets until 2020, based on the actual number of the world
commercial fleets 2010

9
According to the study of JITI & NF (2010), it is noticed that the 2000 to 2004 averaged growth rates in
the number of the world fleet is 0.8 percent. It is predicted that the figure 0.8 percent will go down to the
extent of the decrease in real GDP in the long term perspective. Therefore the study of JITI & NF (2010)
the annual average growth rate in number of the world fleet between 2010 and 2020 was set at 0.7
percent. Source from Japan International Transport Institute & The Nippon Foundation. (2010, May).
ϭϳ
Table 5 Predicted demands for seafarers in the world fleets in 2020
2,000-
7,999GT
8,000GT
and over
Subtotal Backup
(50%)
Total
(2020)
A
Total
(2010)
B
Deficit
(A-B)
Officer 110,647 207,492 318,139 159,069 477,208 445,055 32,153
Rating 138,309 325,554 463,864 231,932 695,795 648,914 46,881
Total 248,956 533,046 782,002 391,001 1,173,004 1,093,968 79,036
Source: Japan International Transport Institute & the Nippon Foundation. (2010)
For the above Table 5, it is clear that an additional 32,153 Officers in number in 2010
against 2020, and 46, 881 Ratings with a deficit of 7.2 percent for both officers and
ratings will arise by 2020. This study calculates the demand that includes a modest
growth of the global commercial fleet and a minimal effect of cancellations and
scrapping coming out of the economic crisis (Leander, 2010).
On the other hand, while the JITI & NF study has identified the prospect of the demand
for seafarers in 2010 and 2020, it has not provided for the current seafarers supply.
According to the 2005 BIMCO and ISF manpower study, it is estimated that the
worldwide supply of seafarers in 2005 was 466,000 officers and 721,000 ratings. At that
time, the current estimate of worldwide demand for seafarers was 476,000 officers and
586,000 ratings. Consequently, the 2005 worldwide shortfall of seafarers indicated
10,000 officers or a 2 percent deficit.
Meanwhile, the 2000 BIMCO and ISF manpower study, estimated that the number of
officers in the world fleets was 404,000 against a demand for 420,000, which revealed a
deficit of 4 percent.
ϭϴ
2.3 Current labour conditions of seafarers in Korea
The majority of Korean seafarer employees registered in Korea flag ships is 68.7 percent
as identified in Table 6.
Table 6 The percentage of Korean seafarers working on Nationality vessels
Flag Percentage % Flag Percentage % Flag Percentage %
Rep. of Korea 68.7 Cambodia 0.7 Philippines 0.4
Panama 9.3 Malaysia 0.7 Germany 0.3
Vanuatu 6.9 Bahamas 0.5 Singapore 0.1
Marshall
Islands
1.1 Cyprus 0.4 Other 9.7
Hongkong 0.8 Liberia 0.4
Source: Ellis, N. & Simpson, H. The global labour market for seafarers working aboard merchant cargo
ship (2008).
Based on the annual seafarers’ statistics by the Korea Seafarer’s Welfare & Employment
Center 10 (KSWEC) in 2009, the rate of unemployment of seafarers is gradually
increasing, with the number of unemployed seafarers being below 1,500 except in 2006.
However, surprisingly, in 2009, the level of unemployment of seafarers peaked
dramatically, at 1,743 since 2000 according to Table 7. Table 7 and Figure 4 illustrate
the statistics and trends for unemployment of seafarers in today’s Korean labour market.
Taking into account the considerations in the above Table 7, these statistics are a direct
example that reflects the labour supply being greater than the demand in the Korean

ϭϬ Korea Seafarer’s Welfare & Employment Center has been established to promote the welfare of
100,000 seafarers since 1980 under the Seaman Law Article 122. Its main affairs are promotion of
welfare, giving jobs and employment information, supporting affairs for seafarers stable employment,
Job searching and offers.
ϭϵ
maritime labor market. Simply, it indicates that the market trend reflects a slight over
supply of seafarers, which is in contrast to the global trend.
Table 7 Statistics for the unemployment of seafarers per year in Korea
Officer Rating
Year Total
Sub
total Deck Engine Radio Sub
total Deck Engine Catering
2000 1,413 696 374 320 2 717 366 214 137
2001 1,287 678 340 336 2 609 317 154 138
2002 1,184 645 346 294 5 539 268 143 128
2003 1,463 859 475 379 5 604 282 151 171
2004 1,067 569 337 231 1 498 253 119 126
2005 1,172 675 401 274 497 269 111 117
2006 1,692 933 603 330 759 340 145 274
2007 1,480 762 429 330 3 718 353 167 198
2008 1,480 931 538 393 549 288 101 160
2009 1,743 1,230 765 465 513 184 120 209
Source: Korea Seafarer’s Welfare & Employment Center, Annual Seafarers Statistics in 2009.
Source: Korea Seafarer’s Welfare & Employment Center, Annual Seafarers Statistics in 2009.
Figure 4 Statistics for the unemployment of seafarers per year in Korea
ϮϬ
In addition, according to the study by Hwang (2008a), the supply is slightly higher than
the demand which defines that the number of registered employees by company as
demonstrated in Table 8. Depending on the statistics; it is clear that the supply is greater
than the demand as the trend shows in Table 7 and Figure 4 above.
However, another point that we must ram home constantly is that how many seafarers
and shipping companies are registered on KSWEC in reality. Therefore, in general from
a practical point view, these statistics might not contain the actual need to seek jobs and
seafarers (Ibid). For example, in the case of major shipping companies, they used to put
employment needs in the commercial media, recruit from internet sites or in more
proactive commercial ways attract seafarers, as well as post job openings according to
their own company’s employment policy rather than through the register on KSWEC.
Table 8 Status of seafarers by supply and demand in Korea, in 2007
Supply 11 Demand12 Over and Short
officer Deck Officer 5,058 4,455 603
Engineer Officer 4,350 4,020 330
Radio operator 18 17 1
rating Deck part 2,604 1,990 614
Engine part 996 851 145
total 3,600 2,841 759
Total 13,026 11,333 1,693
Source: Hwang J.H. (2008a). The analysis of the current supply and demand for seafarers in Korea and
policy issue based on data from Korea Seafarer’s Welfare & Employment Center, 『Annual Seafarers
Statistics』,2007

11 Number of registered job seekers at the Korea Seafarer’s Welfare & Employment Center 12 Number of registered workers by company at the Korea Seafarer’s Welfare & Employment Center
Ϯϭ
From a practical point of view, although the supply and demand for seafarers might
coexist compared to the statistics currently available, shipping companies can explain
that the sensory level of the maritime labour market has such a disparity between supply
and demand. There is still plenty of room in the gap of shortage seafarers in the Korean
labour market.
Under the this circumstance of the shortfall of seafarers, the Haesa Information (2007)
press release compared the status of available seafarers with the number of increased
vessels, which showed that the ships are increasing constantly at 11.4 percent by per
year, while the rate of available seafarers declined 4.8 percent over same period in the
past 5 years. In comparison with Table 9, the increasing ratio of the number of available
seafarers is remarkably smaller than the increasing ratio of the number of merchant
vessels.
Table 9 Comparison between status of Merchant Ships and available Seafarers in 2003-2008
Status of Merchant
Vessel Available seafarers states
No. Gross
tonnage
Total
Available
seafarers Employed
seafarers
Reserved
seafarers
Unempl
oyed
seafarers
Sub
back
up
ratio
%
Total
Back up
ratio %
2003 415 11,460 8.663 7,072 732 859 10.4 22.5
2004 475 12,586 8,770 7,362 839 569 11.4 19.1
2005 537 13,455 9,028 7,638 715 675 9.4 18.2
2006 578 14,269 9,426 7,707 786 933 10.2 22.3
2007 704 17,850 9,794 8,240 792 762 9.6 18.9
2008 786 21,378 10,648 8,883 834 931 9.4 19.1
Source 1: Korea Seafarer’s Welfare & Employment Center, Annual Seafarers Statistics in 2003-2008.
Source2: Korea Shipowners’ Association, The statistics of Maritime, 2009.
Note: Merchant Vessels only for officer (Ocean-going Korean Flag + Foreign-flag Vessels)
ϮϮ
2.4 Prospects for the demand and supply of seafarers in the future
A more detailed project study regarding the prospect of supply and demand for seafarers
in 2020 was undertaken by the Korea Maritime Institute for Korea Ship owners’
Association in 2008. This research anticipates a shortfall of supply against demand for
seafarers of 1,521 by the year 2010 and of 6,129 by the year 2020 without the various
factors which will be observed in the world economy between 2010 and 2020 (Jo, 2008).
Source: Jo E. A. Marine powerful led Korea, but supply shortfall of seafarers, 2008
Note: not included the impact of the decreasing worldwide commercial fleets according
to the world financial crisis
Figure 5 Prospect for supply and demand of seafarers in the Korean maritime labor market
Other data is calculated including the impact on the decreasing worldwide commercial
fleets according to the current world financial crisis, this study forecasted the deficit of
1,431 by the year 2010, and of 3.188 by the year 2012, and finally of 4,133 by the year
2020 as indicated in the above graph in Figure 5. Therefore, as mentioned earlier, the
most up-to-date estimated trend for global seafarer supply and demand is unbalanced.
The overall scale of demand for Officers might be higher than predicted in some years,
and seafarer demand might be significantly higher than predicted in previous years.
Ϯϯ
The current estimate suggests a severe shortage of qualified seafarers has created a
significant issue in the global maritime market; and further in the Korean maritime labor
market. These statistics on the Korean maritime labor market indicate the shortfall of
seafarers and the unbalance between the supply and demand for seafarers in the near
future. How will the supply of seafarers meet the demand? And what will be impact of
such a of shortage seafarers in such a market? The answer is undoubtedly an urgent need
to recruit and retain more qualified seafarers in order to meet the existing and future
demands.
2.5 The impact of the global shortage seafarers
We are able to speculate easily that if the shortfall of seafarers will be more severe than
in past years, these problems will influence national competiveness, as well as the global
status of ‘Korea Maritime’.
The maritime industry contributes to the advancement of the economy, technology and
social labor markets. At this time, Korea is ranked as the seventh largest flag of
registration in the world with 1,235 ships13 and 46,623,226 deadweight tonnage,14 as of
1 January 2009 according to UNCTAD15 (2009). In fact, it should be noted again that
the Korean Maritime industry creates a higher added value compared to other national
businesses.
Nevertheless, in such market conditions, however, the recent safety problems on ships
are caused by a shortage of qualified seafarers to manage ship manning properly.

13 Compiled the number of vessels with national flag and foreign flags.
ϭϰ Compiled the deadweight tonnage of vessels with national flag and foreign flags.
15 See the reference, Review of Maritime Transport 2009 by UNCTAD , from
https://monkessays.com/write-my-essay/unctad.org/en/docs/rmt2009_en.pdf
Ϯϰ
“The use of unqualified seafarers onboard is due to a shortfall of seafarers
nowadays that has been caused by ship mis-handling and managing improperly
and occasional serious disturbances.”
The above statement was made by Kim, the secretary of the Federation of Korean
Seafarers’ Unions (Jo, 2008).
According to this research interview the concerned human resources manager16 for one
of Korea’s major shipping companies, said,
“To obtain sufficient seafarers continuously and manage manning without a hitch,
we have to employed many foreign seafarers, however, they occasionally make
mistakes while onboard.” (Ibid)
2.6 Possible measures to secure the quantity and quality of seafarers
In order to satisfy the supply and demand of qualified seafarers and attract seafarers into
the shipping industry, the measures of national policies, as well the global efforts, have
recommended secured aspects of improvement of the environment surrounding
seafarers, such as wages, more opportunity for training and education, and improved
living conditions. All efforts to attract seafarers have indicated such policies will
improve the solutions. However, among these solutions, in fact there has as yet been no
proactive recommendation respecting the potential value of utilizing more women
seafarers. Why is this not a focus of attention?

16 Interviewed the H shipping company’s’ manager, source from: Jo E. A. (2008, October 28). Marine
powerful led Korea, but supply shortfall of seafarers. Dong A. Retrieved June 12, 2010 from the World
Wide Web: https://monkessays.com/write-my-essay/donga.com/fbin/output?n=200810280046
Ϯϱ
Female seafarers have a sufficient potential ability to be qualified officers in the
shipping industry. However, the crucial problem is that they transfer to shore-based jobs
sooner than male seafarers who have an obligatory three-year on-board working17
arrangement according to Korea’s obligation to protect the country.
Why do women seafarers decide to leave work at sea? In fact, most maritime university
students have been trained and educated under special programs such as the military
over a four year period including one year training onboard. Both female and male
students have the same background without distinguishing different sexual issues.
Regardless of their background, what makes women hesitate about working at sea?
Therefore, this dissertation attempts to address the problems of women at sea, and will
recommend areas where the shipping industry, which is based on CSR, can provide
solutions to attract women to stay longer at sea as seafarers.

17 All able-bodied men over 19 of the Republic of Korea are required to serve in the military for 24-27
months. However, the graduated university students have an obligatory to board work instead of serving
in the military.
Ϯϲ
Chapter 3 The trend of women seafarers’ employment
3.1 Current women seafarers’ occupation
Belcher et al.(2003), researched women seafarers and indicated that the participation rate
of women in seafaring remains relatively small compared with male seafarers in the
world. According to their study, it has been estimated that women represent only 1 to 2
percent of the world’s 1.25 million seafarers and that most of these women are from
developed countries. Thus, the largest number of women is found working as hotel staff
of passenger ships, particularly on cruise ships and ferries. Unfortunately, there is no
official data and an analysis of women seafarers from any global research center or any
related and/or involved investigation organization. Therefore, it is worth noting
obviously that in order to encourage women to go to sea, it should be understood and
recognized how few women seafarers are participating in the maritime world by
different ship type and region, country and company. This effort on women seafarers
should be continued thereby enabling and encouraging them on a global basis.
3.1.1 Employment of women by ship type and distribution by rank
As shown in the following figures, according to Belcher et al., (2003) based on the
SIRC/ILO Survey, it is found that the great majority of the world’s women seafarers (94
percent18) are employed aboard passenger ships as officers as well as ratings. The 2003’s
study above indicated that 68 percent of all the women (3,554) work on ferries,
overwhelmingly the highest number, and 26 percent on cruise ships with just small
portion of 6 percent on cargo ships.

18 The study divided passenger ships into two sectors: cruise ships and ferry ship types.
Ϯϳ
Nevertheless, as mentioned in paragraph 3.1, unfortunately, no survey has been
conducted regarding the actual population size of women seafarers in the global labour
market by any international organization since the SIRC survey was completed in 2003.
In addition, in the case of Korea, there is no data on women seafarers respecting
occupation on type of ships in such organizations as the KSMWEC and the Ministry of
Land, Transportation and Maritime Affairs. Even though it might be difficult to collect
data from all the countries where women seafarers have been recorded, this data would
obviously be a crucial cornerstone towards identifying the number of women amongst
the overall number of seafarers, and ameliorating and providing appropriate support and
policies from the industry and community.
In contrast, in the case of the Danish Maritime Authority, seafarers have been recorded
in a computerized database since 1 April 1986. It is compulsory for shipping companies
to record and manage each time a seafarer is signed on or off a ship under the Danish
flag and send a copy to the authorities (Hansen, H.L. & Jensen, J., 1998). Therefore, it is
worthwhile noting that a broader global effort is needed to collect data relating to
women seafarers in order to recognize how the occupational distribution of women
seafarers in the world and on what types of ships.
Source: Belcher, Sampson, Thomas, Veiga, and Zhao Women Seafarers: global
employment policies and practices. ILO, 2003
Figure 6 Employment of women by ship type and distribution by rank in the world
Ϯϴ
As mentioned above, in the case of Korea, there is no particular existing data regarding
women ratings. In general, the route through which women become seafarers is to enroll
in the maritime university or Korea Institute of Maritime and Fisheries Technology.
After graduation the majority who attain a qualified license might become a 3rd officer
or 3rd engineer, not a rating. Consequently, the rate of Korean women officers is
remarkably higher than the study by Belcher et al., (2003) based on the SIRC seafarers
database which identifies the number of women ratings as higher than women officers in
the rest world, as illustrated in Figure 6. According the study by Belcher et al., (2003), it
is indicated that 93 percent of ratings originate mostly from ferries and cruise ships, not
just cargo ships.
3.2 Current Korean women seafarers’ occupation in the global merchant ship market
In commercial shipping companies, the proportion level of women is extremely low.
The author surveyed major Korean shipping companies19 registered in various parts of
the world, through telephone interviews with responsible human resource managers or
seafarer manning managers during 21-24 June, 2010. The author found many major
shipping companies where women have been present and identified as shown below in
Table 10, where roughly 50 are women. Table 10 lists a sample of the companies that
employ women in merchant fleets. Furthermore, it identifies the proportion of women
seafarers in 1.96 percent against the total of Korean seafarer officers in A-I shipping
companies.

ϭϵ The author selected major shipping companies which most of the graduated maritime university
students apply have applied in͘
Ϯϵ
Table 10 Women seafarers employed in shipping companies, 2010
Company Description
Total
number of
fleets
Total
Korean
officer
Women
seafarers
Percentage
%
A Foreign Flag vessels 47 211 0 0
B Foreign Flag vessels 77 232 0 0
C Foreign Flag vessels 65 248 4 1.6
D Foreign Flag vessels 56 275 0 0
E Foreign Flag vessels 88 543 0 0
F Ocean going Korean Flag 31 201 10 5.0
G Ocean going Korean Flag 43 312 10 3.2
H Ocean going Korean Flag
+ Foreign Flag vessels
102 540 18
3.3
I Ocean going Korean Flag 79 498 8 1.6
Total 455 2553 50 1.96
Source : survey by Sohyun Jo, based on Korea Seafarer’s Welfare & Employment Center, ship and crew
research, 2010
Note : Among ocean going Korean Flag and Foreign Flag vessels, collected and listed the companies that
have more than 200 in the total number of officers.
The research found that the total number of ships in Korean shipping companies
including ocean going Korea Flag and Foreign Flag vessels, are 2,226 ships20, and
Korean officers are 9,452 officers21. Amongst the total of 9,452 officers on cargo fleets
in Korea, the shipping companies employed 50 women seafarers, 0.52 percent of the
total number of seafarers.
Similarly, Belcher et al., (2003) based on the SIRC Survey in 2001, investigated cargo
shipping companies registered in various parts of the world and received 37 responses

20 Source : Korea Seafarer’s Welfare & Employment Center, ship and crew research, 2010
21 Source : Korea Seafarer’s Welfare & Employment Center, ship and crew research, 2010
ϯϬ
from companies. The survey found that the companies employed 212 women seafarers
(0.76 percent) among a total of 27, 541 seafarers on cargo fleets in the world. In the
Philippine case, there were 25 officers of a total 6,619 women in 2006 and the majority
were onboard passenger ships or cruise liners. (Nieva, 2008) Surprisingly, according to
the Philippine overseas Employment Administration (POEA), the number of Filipino
women seafarers rose by 2.7 percent, from 6,436 in 2006 to 6,619 in 2007. Whilst, the
number of their male counterparts dropped by 2.6 percent to 216,874 in 2007 from
222,575 in 2006 (Ibid).
In the Korean case, the employment of women seafarers is relatively low compared to
the global level. Both of the two samples represent those women who onboard the world
merchant fleet is comparatively the lowest participation rate of the total number of
seafarers in the world, whereupon women’s participation rate is quite unbalanced and
quite unequal compared with male seafarer proportions in general.
This study aims to identify what problems women seafarers face and identify a better
solution to improve these situation on cargo ships. For this reason, the author has been
trying to research how many women hold an Officer’s license and what grade they have
attained, as well as length of experience as officers onboard. However, it is very difficult
to collect and classify data into minor categorization groups from the relevant
organizations and companies. In general, it seems that the relevant organizations have
insufficient data.
3.2.1 The age of women seafarers
According to the study of Belcher et al., (2003) based on the SIRC Survey, the age
profiles of seafarers shows that the average age is 33.2 for all seafarers, 35.4 for men and
31.5 for women. However, it is ambiguous to compare these numbers with the average
ϯϭ
age of Korean women seafarers who are employed on cargo ships, because this study
included the average age of women employed on cruise, ferry, and cargo ships together.
Furthermore, this research found that the majority of Korean women seafarers are going
to sea as officers directly when they graduate from the Maritime University. They then
work onboard ships for an average of 2 to 3 years in the merchant ship fleets according
to author’s research. Therefore, the study of Belcher et al., (2003) compared with
Korean women seafarers, on average we see they are, three or four years younger than in
this study, as Figure 7 indicates. In addition, it is assumed that the high intensive
distribution of the average age of women seafarers is between 25 and 30 years old.
Source 1: Belcher, P., Sampson H., Thomas M., Veiga J., & Zhao M. (2003). Women Seafarers: global
employment policies and practices.
Source 2: surveyed by Sohyun Jo, 2010
Figure 7 Age profile of women seafarers (Lift) by Belcher et al., (2003) and Careers profile of
Korean women seafarers (Right)
ϯϮ
3.2.2 Type of ship employing women seafarers
As mentioned in paragraph 3.2 Table 10; women seafarers employed in major shipping
companies, it might be assumed what type of ship most women are on board currently.
According to such evidence, the majority of women seafarers work on container ships,
bulk carriers and car carriers which the author explains in more detail in Chapter 5.
3.3 Preference trend of Maritime University students regarding seafaring
Earlier in this chapter, the author identified the number of female seafarers participating
in cargo fleets in Korea. Interestingly, the only available data and analysis are the
estimated employment of graduated women students of Mokpo Maritime University
(MMU) by Hwang, S.J., IM, N.K & Bae, C.O. (2008).
In the following Figure 9, Hwang S.J et al., (2008) have summarized data from
telephone interviews with 138 female graduate students of MMU amongst a total
number of 388 female graduates, indicating the current levels of employment of women
in the maritime industry from 2002 to 2008. The study indicates that most women are
occupying relevant roles on shore in the respective shipping companies and only 8
percent female are onboard ships currently. However, according to this study, the
participation in seafaring is gradually increasing compared with previous years, from 4
just under 8 percent. Figure 8, indicates that most women are working in shipping
companies (47 percent), in postgraduate studying (12 percent), in ship building yards (11
percent), in the Korea Coast Guard (9 percent).
ϯϯ
Source: Hwang S.J., IM N.K & Bae C.O. (2008). A study on analysis of the situation of employment for
women at Mokpo Maritime University.
Figure 8 The status of employment of women graduated students of MMU (2002 – 2008) – Left
Figure 9 Preference of future employment students of MMU, 2008 – Right
In addition, Hwang S.J et al., (2008) conducted questionnaires to enrolled females in
their first, second and fourth years of MMU during November 1, 2008 to November 15,
2008, regarding their preference of future jobs after graduation from university. Over 36
percent of these females chose a government officer position as their favorite future job
as indicated in Figure 9. On the similar numerical value, a job in a shipping company is
the 2nd favorite future job, at 31 percent. Surprisingly, 7 percent choose a seafaring job
indicating; they would like to be a seafarer after graduating from the maritime university.
This may reflect a present trend towards women in seafaring in the shipping industry.
Thus, the author would like to explore the reasons for the low preference of seafaring as
a future job in the above study.
ϯϰ
Chapter 4 Policy and practices of IMO towards female employment
This chapter examines the policy and practices for female employment in the shipping
industry focusing on IMO’s activities as the international regulatory body which has
become increasingly influential within the maritime industry. The reason for the focus of
the author on IMO activities towards women at the global level is in order to focus on
several specific issues which surround employment with women as evident in the
author’s survey.
4.1 International Maritime Organization
The International Maritime Organization (IMO), as a United Nations (UN) specialized
agency, is to promote safe, secure, environmentally sound, efficient and safer shipping.
The organization’s body22 aims are to establish a universal and uniform application, such
as the highest practicable standards to update existing legislation or develop and adopt
new regulations. In summary, IMO’s mission is to foster better ‘safe, secure and
efficient shipping on clean oceans.’ (IMO, 2010a; IMO A 26/Res. 1011, 2010).
One of the missions of IMO, the holistic approach to the integration of women into all
levels of political, economic and social development, was introduced in 1988 with the
approval of the ‘Strategy of the Integration of Women in the Maritime Sector’ as the two
priority objectives, in accordance with the UN’s key recommendations on human

22 IMO’s specialized committees and sub-committees are the focus for the technical, practical work to
update existing legislation or develop and adopt new regulations, with meetings attended by maritime
experts from Member Governments, together with those from interested intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations. The Organization is organized in an Assembly, a Council and five main
Committees and a number of Sub-Committees support the work of the main technical committees.
Source from IMO. Retrieved June 16, 2010 from the World Wide Web: https://monkessays.com/write-my-essay/imo.org.
ϯϱ
resources development and capacity-building (IMO TC 58/7/1, 2008; IMO TC 47/8,
1999; IMO,1998). Thus, the whole aspect of development for women became a
mainstream element of the Organization’s Integrated Technical Co-operation
Programme (ITCP), inter alia, under the Technical Co-operation Committee (TC) (Ibid).
In 1988, the IMO launched the Strategy for Women in Development (WID) in order to
integrate women into the mainstream maritime sector, as well as to promote the
endorsement of gender considerations, throughout its detailed purpose of WID23(Tansey,
2010).
In 1990, the issue of the integration of women in the maritime Sector became a regular
item on the agenda of the Technical Co-operation Committee, (IMO TC 58/7/1, 2008)
and approved the strategic plan as follow, (IMO TC 47/8, 1999; IMO, 1999)
1. IMO Medium Term Plan for the Integration of Women in the Maritime Sector
1992 to 1996; and
2. Action Programme for Equal Opportunities and Advancement of Women in
the Maritime Sector 1997 to 2001
In accordance with IMO TC 47/8 (Women in Development by the Secretariat, 1999), the
WID Programme has been subsumed into the ITCP as a cross-sectoral issue which is
central to the strengthening of national and regional maritime capacities. The mechanism
for implementing the Programme’s objectives is to focus on equal access to training
through both mainstream programmes24 and gender – specific projects25.

23 The purpose of WID is in order to integrate women into mainstream maritime activities; to improve
women’s access to maritime training and technology; to increase the percentage of women at the senior
management level within the maritime sector; and to promote women’s economic self-reliance,
including access to employment.
Ϯϰ These projects seek to integrate women in mainstream sectoral initiatives of IMO. Integrated projects
require gender-sensitive design in order to ensure from the project’s inception that women will be
ϯϲ
The organization’s technical co–operation gender activities are structures through the
ITCP under a discrete global programme for the Integration of Women in the Maritime
Sector (IWMS), supported, since 2001, by the TC Fund. One of the principal objectives
of the ITCP is to help improve the human capital of developing countries through
training, education and other means of knowledge transfer. Strengthening the ‘human
element’, without gender distinction, is a key consideration in delivering IMO’s mandate
(IMO TC 58/7/1 paragraph 3, 2008).
IWMS represents the primary vehicle for articulating the UN system-wide commitment
to gender equality, in support of the UN Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 326 to
“promote gender equality and empower women”. The Secretariat has continued to
emphasize this aspect of capacity-building through its global programmes for technical
co-operation. The policy linkages relating to this issue are reflected also in the
Organization’s strategic plan, which addresses gender aspects under Strategic Direction
3 whereby ‘IMO will strengthen its capacity-building programmes’. Further linkages
are made through the High-level Action Plan, which includes reference to ‘strengthening
the role of women in the maritime sector’ (IMO, TC 60/7, 2010; IMO, TC 60/7/1, 2010;
TC 59/10, 2008;TC 58/7/1, 2008 ).

specific target groups both as participants and as beneficiaries in the formulation and impact of a
programme or project. Source from IMO TC 47/8 Annex p2.
Ϯϱ Women-specific projects represent a phased approach to facilitating the integration of women into the
mainstream sectoral development of the maritime industry: they represent an engine for change, through
activities which include, inter alia, dedicated fellowship funding for technical training programmes,
which, in addition to improving specific maritime skills, are designed to Help women in overcoming
attitudinal and environmental constraints and ensure their access to training. Source from IMO TC 47/8.
Annex p2.
26 The policy linkages relating to this issue are reflected also in the Organization’s Strategic Plan, which
addresses gender aspects under Strategic Direction 3 “IMO will strengthen its capacity-building
programmes”. Further linkages are made through the High-Level Action Plan, which makes reference
to strengthening the role of women in the maritime sector. Source from (IMO, TC 60/7, 2010; TC 59/10,
2008)
ϯϳ
The IWMS gender-specific fellowships are intended to support the access to training
opportunities for women in the developing regions, in accordance with the concepts
outlined under MDG 3, by facilitating the identification and selection of women for
career development opportunities in maritime administrations, ports and maritime
training institutes. The training, thus imparted, represents an engine for change which, in
addition to improving a region’s maritime capacities, is designed to Help women in
overcoming attitudinal and environmental constraints and to facilitate their access to
career development (IMO, TC 60/7, 2010).
4.1.1 Limitation of these Programmes
In accordance with the purpose of establishment of regional linkages, the author focuses
on this point, as it seems to be not quite to satisfy the scope of the overall course of
programmes. This means that the range of the course of a programme is limited to
particular courses which focus on maritime transport management, port operations,
maritime law, maritime security and so on. This is indicated in Table 11 which show the
fellowships provided under the TC Programme during the 2002-2009 period.
Nevertheless, in these circumstances of contributing to international efforts, it has not
been a programme sufficient to develop the capacity-building and encourage the self–
confidence of women seafarers to go to sea! Nowadays, a growing number of women
desire to go to sea, and they decide to work at sea for longer periods. Despite all of the
international efforts such as the WID in 1998, supported by the ITCP and IWMS in 2001,
and later the campaign ‘Go to Sea’ in 2008 and ‘2010: Year of Seafarers’ in 2010, there
are insufficient programmes to encourage the integration of women seafarers into the
maritime sector. The author reviews and examines the existing programmes that are
focused on women who are working as managers in the maritime shore-based industry
and port sectors.
ϯϴ
Table 11 Fellowship programme by TC
Year Course Recipient countries
Maritime transport management Ghana
Advanced course on port operations and management Guyana, Russian Federation
Maritime and port management programme Myanmar
Maritime law short course Poland, Slovenia
2002
On the job training at MCA, Southampton South Africa
Senior port management programme Philippines
Advanced course on port operations and management Lithuania, Togo
Maritime Security workshop / symposium Honduras
2003
Study tour on flag State implementation Haiti
Senior port management programme Romania, Tanzania 2004
Advanced course on port operations and management Congo, Lithuania, Togo
Senior port management programme Liberia, Poland
2005 Advanced course on port operations and management Benin, Gambia
Nine month course in international maritime law Ukraine
Advanced course on port operations and management China
Women in Shipping and Trading Association (WISTA)
Annual Conference
China, Kenya, Nigeria
Senior port management programme Gambia, Tanzania
2006
Advanced course on port operations and management Ukraine
Advanced course on port operations and management Belize, Cameroon,
Philippines, Senegal
Senior port management programme Cambodia, Russian Federation,
South Africa
International semnar on port security Honduras
2007
Marine pollution prevention in ports operations On the job
training
Cote d’Ivoire
Advanced course on port operations and management Albania, China, Côte
d’Ivoire, Gabon
Senior port management programme South Africa, United
Republic of Tanzania
Subregional maritime English instructors training course Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,
Russian Federation Ukraine
2008
Course on Regional Ocean Governance for Mediterranean
and Eastern European countries
Russian Federation, Turkey
ϯϵ
Maritime administration attachment On-the-job training Namibia
Advanced course on port operations and management Madagascar, Nigeria and
Tunisia
Senior port management programme Namibia, the Philippines
Regional Ocean Governance for Mediterranean and Eastern
European countries
Russian Federation, Ukraine
2009
Training course on Port Security Kenya
Source: Combined data by Sohyun Jo based on the IMO Technical Co-operation Committee’s document.
In comparison with the earlier mentioned IMO activities, the United Nations General
Assembly adopted the establishment of the UN entity for gender equality and the
empowerment of women commonly known as ‘UN Women’ in July 2010 (UN, 2010).
The UN has attempted to address such challenges, by becoming a dynamic and strong
champion for women and girls, as well as providing them with a powerful voice at the
global, regional and local levels (Ibid). Ultimately, this programme will promote gender
equality and the empowerment of women on a global level.
In order to be more active in encouraging further development of the women seafarer
work force as a human resource, IMO should consider policies to establish and provide
sufficient programmes that are more proactive towards the present women seafarers, and
also those who want to be recruited into seafarer jobs in the future. Obviously, the
principle role of the programme would be to conduct surveys of women on board ships
and evaluate the women seafarer work force through monitoring and assessment. Also,
this programme should consider practical ways to encourage female employment in the
maritime sector by using specifically designed programmes.
ϰϬ
Chapter 5 Survey
5.1 Background to the Survey Questionnaire
An overview of the study aims and procedures involved in the project research is shown
in Table 13. In addition, a more detailed questionnaire is shown in Appendix 1.
Table 12 Overview of the project research
Study Aims • In order to improve a profile of Korean women seafarers
– Examine the main issues surrounding the recruitment
and retention of women seafarers,
– Discuss the working life of women seafarers,
– Support a development strategy for recruitment and
retention of women seafarers on merchant vessels.
Data Collection • Target group
– Former seafarers and present seafarers,
• The data collection was undertakening June and July in
2010,
• Of the original 51 participants, 26 were successfully
contacted, with a response rate of 68 percent,
• Method : e-mail and telephone interviews.
Questionnaire contents • Personal data and background
– Age, occupation, type of ship, reason for seafaring,
experience of seafarer, rank on ship,
• Experience at sea
– Problem with colleagues, difficulty to retain why, how
deal with these problems, the areas to be improved,
shipping company responsibility, recommend other
woman,
• Miscellaneous comments.
Overall response
analysis method
• Conduct survey of key opinion leaders,
• Conduct on frequency analysis on questionnaires of
representative sample through SPSS,
• Consider giving priority to aspects of the problem,
• Recommend measures to support women seafarers’ needs.
ϰϭ
5.2 Response details
5.2.1 Average age of respondents
Table 13 does not represent the current overall women seafarers’ age profile. As Table
13, shows the rate of distribution of the respondent group’s age of those who have had
experience at sea as officers and/or current seafarers. The majority of respondents are of
an average age between 30 and 35 years, or 57.8 percent. The mean age of these
respondents is 30 according to this analysis.
Table 13 The age profile of respondents
Age
categorize
Frequency
percentage
Valid
percent
22 3.8 3.8
24 19.3 19.3
25 11.5 11.5
26 3.8 3.8
27 3.8 3.8
30 3.8 3.8
31 7.8 7.8
32 3.8 3.8
33 7.8 7.8
34 11.5 11.5
35 23.1 23.1
Missing values : 0, Mean : 29.69, Median : 31.0, Standard deviation :4.78, Variance : 22.542
Total 100.0 100.0
Source : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
ϰϮ
5.2.2 Current occupation of respondents
Table 14 The current occupation of respondents
Occupation
categorize
Frequency
percentage
Valid
percent
PSCO 3.8 3.8
VTS operator 0.0 0.0
Seafarer 7.8 7.8
Korea Coast Guard 3.8 3.8
Government Officer 3.8 3.8
Ship Building Yard 3.8 3.8
Shipping company
manager level
0.0 0.0
Shipping company
junior level
7.8 7.8
Inspector or
Surveyor
15.4 15.4
University Master or
Doctor degree
student
3.8 3.8
Teacher or instructor 3.8 3.8
Looking for
employment
7.7 7.7
Homemaker 11.5 11.5
Other 26.9 26.9
Missing values : 0, Mean : 9.85, Median : 10.5, Standard deviation :4.076, Variance : 16.615
Total 100.0 100.0
Source : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
Among these seafarers, many inspectors and surveyors responded to the questionnaire
equaling 15.4 percent of the respondents. Unfortunately, the rate of respondents of
current women seafarers was only 7.8 percent. To interpret the low response of current
women seafarers, it could be attributed to a hesitation by shipping companies to provide
contact lists to the author when the research topic of women seafarers in Korea was
ϰϯ
identified. The author concludes that the shipping companies were concerned about what
their employees might say that would negatively implicate the companies.
5.2.3 Experiment of cargo ships
5.2.3.1 Type of ship
The majority of women in this research have experience on bulk carriers and container
work. According to the author’s results in Figure 15, it is noticeable that women
employed on gas carriers represented over 15 percent the same as car carriers, of those
employed. However, it is noted that the respondents from gas carriers were cadets, not
officers. Actually, there is no record as yet of any history of as Officers or Engineers on
oil tanker ships and gas carriers. Not surprisingly, both oil tanker and gas carrier
shipping companies are apparently willing to employ women as officers and engineers;
however, it seems to be ironic that there is no recorded evidence of their hiring of
women.
One comment in the questionnaires, from one ex-seafarer Korean women it was
recounted,
“Initially, I applied to one of the big major tanker shipping companies for
employment as a 3rd officer. I was to challenge there never have been women
onboard tanker ships historically. […] however, I did not choose to embark on that
ship. I did not understand that all of them were male, even with a lower grade
point average (GPA) than me. Of course, I could was not compared in terms of
GPA, however look at all the tanker shipping companies, there are all male, no
women at all.”
The author questioned these comments with a human resource manager in a tanker
shipping company, and he stated,
ϰϰ
“There is no particular reason, we do not think there is a taboo against women.
When we hire employees, we should consider who would make an adequate
employee in our company the same as for other shipping companies, it should
follow quality and the internal system, not be influenced by any particular issues.”
However, the author notes that the above company has no prior history of employing
women as officers.
Other tanker shipping company managers stated regarding the employment of women
officers in an interview that:
“We feel sorry about the lack of proactive employment of women, but it is true
that the tanker shipping world has a conservative view of women. In fact, the ship
area of the tanker industry retains conventional views. This point of view may be
because they have to handle a dangerous cargo at all times, the responsible crew
members could be more sensitive with a woman. That women onboard is a taboo
in the shipping world as it might cause a serious disasters or accidents.”
However, the author concludes that these circumstances are not considered to be
discouraging given that the history of women onboard is approximately 17 years. The
author further concludes that there is sufficient room for improvement by women which
is the primary purpose behind this study. .
Let us explore more regarding the type of ship of women onboard ships. The general
working environment on board ship has not been improved relative to the shore based
working environment. In order to close the gap, many shipping companies have been
considering a friendlier and a safer safety atmosphere. For example, the S shipping
company tries to place women exclusively on new ships on long haul and on older ships
on short-sea voyages. Other shipping companies have placed women officers onboard
ϰϱ
container ships mostly because they appreciate their meticulousness and detailed
performance as well as it being a more acceptable living environment on ships. The
shipping companies examined that many women officers on container ships have carried
out their performance satisfactorily and with remarkable ability more so than their male
colleagues (Kim, 2008a).
Table 15 Type of ship with women onboard
Type of ship Frequency
percentage
Valid
percent
Bulk carrier 23.1 23.1
Cars carrier 7.7 7.7
Container 23.1 23.1
Gas carrier 11.5 11.5
LNG carrier 0.0 0.0
Oil Tanker 15.4 15.4
Training ship 15.4 15.4
Others 3.8 3.8
Missing values : 0, Mean : 3.62, Median : 3.0, Standard deviation : 2.401, Variance : 5,766
Total 100.0 100.0
Source : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
5.2.3.2 Rank and careers of women onboard ship
It is surprising to note why women seafarers have had a short period of experience
onboard ship when many female graduates went to sea as officers and then, decided to
transfer to shore-based jobs or look for alternative employment. To explain this
phenomenon the following Table 16, indicates among respondents, 50.6 percent have
experience onboard of less than 1 year. The majority already had experience as apparent
ϰϲ
officers and apparent engineers on ships. However, they then later decided to apply for
shore-based jobs or other non-seafaring employment.
Table 16 Rank (Left) and career (Right) onboard ship
Source : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
On the other hand, it seems that most available career data shows from 1 year to 3 years
onboard ships. These career periods are much shorter than young males who have to
fulfill an obligatory three year on-board work assignment. It is worth noting that the
average period onboard ship for women is crucial from a shipping company point of
view, because it can be doubted what merits of employment women are on boarding. In
common economic sense, it seems that having women on boarding is not an effective
and economic means in the long term from a shipping company practical standpoint.
However, the author provides a further explanation in Chapter 6.
ϰϳ
5.2.4 Main motivation of selecting to be a seafarer
Women are attracted to work at sea for various reasons. Table 17 demonstrates these
reasons for choosing a seafaring career. The highest response shows a desire to work in
a different seagoing environment, with 53.8 percent of respondents indicating this reason.
The 2nd highest response at 34.6 percent indicates a motivation for a special job
experience and then to transfer it to a shore-based job in the future.
Table 17 Main motivation to select a seafaring job
Reason Frequency
percentage
Valid
percent
Opportunity of
travel
0.0 0.0
Economic reason 11.5 11.5
Transfer to ashore
for future
34.6 34.6
Desire and
challenge
53.8 53.8
Difficult
employment ashore
0.0 0.0
Other 0.0 0.0
Missing values : 0, Mean : 3.42, Median : 4.0, Standard deviation : 0.703, Variance : 0.494
Total 100.0 100.0
Source : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
In comparison, in the cruise sector, women from developing countries respond to the
potential earning opportunity compared to lesser economic opportunities from shorebased jobs (Belcher et al., 2003, Zhao, 2001). This further explains why most Asian
women primarily focus on the financial advantages of seafaring. On the contrary,
women from developed countries cite the opportunity to travel and “see the world for
ϰϴ
free” as the most significant motivating factor to join the cruise sector; (Belcher et al.,
2003) and they were seemingly less motivated by economic reasons such that most
developed countries women seafarers noted that ‘money is not my major concern.’(Zhao,
2001).
In evaluating the above findings of this research, the most significant motivating factor
is not to get the opportunity to see other countries such as indicated by women from
developed countries, but rather the financial advantage motivation. The following
response from an ex-seafarer was Korean women.
“I think that the seafarer officer as a job has to be made more attractive than it is
now. Currently, the ships’ officer is not an enviable job with good earnings,
compensation or with opportunities to travel overseas any more. There are many
other jobs which pay much better earnings than shore-based jobs, and seafarers are
not allowed to freely travel to foreign countries as before because of the short
berthing times.”
Once again the respondents recount a major motivating reason for choosing seafaring in
Korea that is to examine one’s self, satisfies own desire for a different environment and
the so-called, ‘challenge’ and ‘spirit of adventure their own way’. Initially, it seems that
Korean women desire to be more adventurous and thus go seafaring around the world.
5.2.5 Experience at sea
5.2.5.1 Experience of facing problems with colleagues
Nearly 32 percent of all respondents had have experience of sexual discrimination with
colleagues at sea, as highlighted in Figure 10. Only 13 percent of respondents have in
fact not experienced any problems with colleagues. However, the combined similar
question with ‘Sexual discrimination’, ‘Sexual harassment’ and ‘Non sexual harassment’
ϰϵ
is a higher rate at 50 percent than 16 percent of ‘Intentional ignorance’, 13 percent of
‘None’ and zero percent of ‘Bullying’. It is significant that half of the respondents have
experienced problems which are inherently sexual or non-sexual harassment and
discrimination.
Source : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
Figure 10 Experience problem with colleagues
Indeed, for women who faced these problems with colleagues, this research found how
they dealt with the problem as indicated in Table 18. It is worth noting how they had
overcome or coped with this situation. The majority (nearly 35 percent) of respondents
reported that they used to keep it to themselves when they experienced a problem with
male colleagues. Also, in order to analyze how women deal with problems with
colleagues, this research conducted a Cross Tabs analysis27 through SPSS between the
question of how to deal with problems and the question what problems as shown in
Table 19.

Ϯϳ Cross Tabs Analysis is used to record and analyze the relationships between responses on two questions
or more categorical variables.
ϱϬ
Table 18 The method of control difficulty
How deal with problem Frequency
percentage
Valid percent
Keep it to oneself 34.9 34.9
Share it with family and/or friends 7.7 7.7
Share it with colleagues and get support from them 30.8 30.8
Report it to your senior (ie, Captain, chief officer, chief engineer,
etc)
23.1 23.1
Report it to company’s manager 0.0 0.0
Report it to Seafarers Union 0.0 0.0
Other 3.8 3.8
Missing values : 0, Mean : 2.62, Median : 3.0, Standard deviation :1.499, Variance : 2.246
Total 100.0 100.0
Source : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
Table 19 Result of Cross Tabs analysis
Keep it Share * Share
**
Report
1
Report
2
Report
3 Other
None 0 0 3 1 0 0 1
Intentional ignorance 2 2 3 1 0 0
Bullying 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sexual discrimination 5 0 3 2 0 0 0
Non sexual harassment :
verbal or physical
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Abuse of power 1 0 2 1 0 0 0
Sexual harassment 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
other 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Source : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
Note *: Share it with family and/or friends, Note **: Share it with colleagues and get support from them
Note 1 Report it to your senior, Note 2: Report it to company’s manager immediately, Note 3: Report it to
Seafarers Union.
ϱϭ
For instance, among 32 percent of the women who had experienced sexual
discrimination with colleagues, 50 percent of the women seem passive to report or share
it as they indicated that they preferred to keep it themselves. Moreover, 30 percent of the
women tried to share it with colleagues and attain support from them through personal
chatting. Another 20 percent of women seem to have a more active tendency to report it
to senior officers on the ship. Eventually, based on the above data, the results
demonstrated that women behave by keeping problems to themselves or share emotional
distress with someone close to them, rather than reporting the incident to senior officers
or the company. It seems that women have a passive attitude to taking up issues rather
than active attitude such as to report it to the company or seafarers unions.
5.2.5.2 The difficulty to retain women at sea
Nearly 27 percent of all women respondents recognize the biggest difficulty onboard is
the loneliness and isolation from family and closer friends as indicated in Table 20. This
is absolutely the worst aspect for all seafarers working at sea today, loneliness and living
away from family and society, and the difficulties of keeping in touch (Bansal, 2009).
The negative impact of isolation from society is a common issue for all seafarers, not
only for women (Kitada, 2009a).
Table 20 The difficult elements of seafaring at sea
Rank The difficult elements of seafaring at sea Frequency
percentage
1 Isolation or loneliness 26.9
2 Sexual discrimination from male colleagues 23.1
3 Traditional social responsibility for women ; marriage, nurturing children 15.4
4 Specialty of job and physical difficulties related to job 15.4
5 Gender inequality; unequal promotion opportunities 8.0
6 other 11.2
Source : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
ϱϮ
Secondly, as the response from 23.1 percent of women who faced sexual discrimination
from male colleagues and thirdly, 15.4 percent of women who responded they had a
difficulty with the traditional social role for women such as marriage, and nurturing
children.
As the same 15.4 percent, some women find the work difficult onboard whereas, the
routine ships’ work seems to be an unsuitable environment for women for instance,
irregular ship arrival and departure, being over-worked, the physical hard work, and the
hot environment in the engine room. The difficult elements of seafaring are crucial
factors to decide what women seafarers need to do to be better seafarers as discussed the
problems in Chapter 6. According to this data, this research analyses in depth and finds
the solutions they need.
5.2.5.3 Opinion of how to improve and develop working environment
Women seafarers are a minority of entity of seafarers on cargo ships. Women seafarers
also transfer shore-based employment more quickly than male seafarers. The focus of
this thesis is to understand why women transfer to shore, what difficulties women face in
being recruited and retaining a seafaring job. In order for this situation to improve, this
research investigates what areas are needed to create a better environment for women.
The results of the question are shown in Table 21.
Table 21 Strategy to improve and develop the working environment
Rank Top priority of area to improve Frequency
percentage
1 Shipping company’s policy and social responsibility (CSR) 53.8
2 The effort of improvements by self-motivated 30.8
3 Korea has a social role and responsibility for females 15.4
Source : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
ϱϯ
Table 21 shows a majority of 53.8 percent of the respondents report that there is a need
to improve the shipping company’s policies and insure greater social responsibility
towards women seafarers. Therefore, the results show that there needs to be a change in
the shipping companies’ policy and put more social responsibility on women. Chapter 6
and 7 of the present paper explore what shipping companies should provide for women
seafarers as a suitable working environment along with the improvement of their policy
towards.
As aforementioned in paragraph 5.2.5.3, the research found women consider shipping
companies should improve their environment to be more suitable for women. Therefore,
the author’s research examines what changes are needed to provide sufficient support in
terms of shipping companies; these are examined in order of priority.
31 percent of the respondents reported that the top priority is to improve to the shipping
companies role of encouraging policies for women’s work at sea. The survey showed
that nearly 27 percent of the respondents replied that the granting of medical leave for
the menstrual period included the granting through a company’s quality system in an
official way as well as establishing a company culture which can make a smooth
progress for this approval whenever needed. With regard to these issues, one Korean exseafarer woman commented on the need to provide support for the upbringing of
children. For example, when a women officer embarks after childbirth, the company
should conduct the support the upbringing of the baby (allowance for diapers, formulas,
etc.) and allow for the embarkation of a nursery governess. In other words, companies
will have to offer proper childcare policies for women to work comfortably after
childbirth.
The third highest response, as 15.4 percent of the respondents is the consideration of a
female group onboard to support each other. Therefore, the author of this research would
ϱϰ
develop a strategy for dealing with improves in the terms of shipping companies as
discussed in Chapter 7.
Table 22 Priority elements for improvement of shipping company
Rank Top priority elements for improvement Frequency
percentage
1 Encourage policies to work at sea 30.8
2 Granting of medical leave for menstrual period28 26.9
3 Consideration of a female group onboard to support one another 15.4
Rank 2nd priority elements for improvement Frequency
percentage
1 Pregnancy policy, grantee of maternity leave and reinstatement29 34.6
2 Encourage policies to work at sea 19.2
3 Granting of medical leave for menstrual period 15.4
Rank 3rd priority element to improvement Frequency
percentage
1 Consideration of a female group onboard to support one another 19.2
Free contact with family and friends through mailing, phone calling, fax etc 11.5
Encourage policies to work at sea 11.5
Granting of medical leave for menstrual period 11.5
Encourage policies to work at sea 11.5
2
Training and education for seafarers 11.5
Source : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
5.2.6 Opinion of the seafaring to be recommended to other women
As mentioned in paragraph 5.2.4, the major motivating rationale for choosing seafaring,
indicating a 53.8 percent response is ‘being a seafarer is to examine oneself’, satisfy
one’s desire for a different environment and a so-called, ‘challenge’. This is so a positive
attitude towards the sea and seafarers. However, this study asks whether more women

28 Included grantee through quality system or document in official way for medical leave for menstrual
period as well as establish company culture which can make a smooth progress. Ϯϵ Included grantee through quality system or document in official way for grantee of maternity leave,
reinstatement medical leave as well as establish company culture which can make a smooth progress.
ϱϱ
should be encouraged to become seafarers on cargo ships. The findings of the study is a
little different gap between 38 percent of respondents who said ‘yes’ and 23 percent of
respondents who said ‘No’ as seen in Figure 11. If one combined the answers of ‘No’
and ‘Not sure’ as negative aspects toward seafaring, then a high rate of 61percent is
dominant rather than the answer of ‘Yes’. According to the following Figure 11, why
were they affected and changed from positive aspects to either negative or vague aspects
toward a seagoing life?
Source : Survey by Jo S.H. 2010
Figure 11 Opinion profile
ϱϲ
Chapter 6 What problems do women seafarers face?
Such evidence is telling, and as a result, we need to acknowledge what are the
difficulties that female seafarers expect to face when working onboard a cargo ship.
Therefore, based on the findings of the questionnaires, this chapter explores what
barriers exist and what we need to take into proper account in order to encourage more
women seafarers to work onboard for longer periods. The linkage between problems and
solutions, an important key factor that explains women seafarers’ feelings and
experiences on cargo ship in Korea, now needs to be further considered.
6.1 Isolation or loneliness
Absolutely, the separation from family can be a major concern and the source of how
much unhappiness for males as well as for females. In essence, isolation is common for
all seafarers, but for a woman the isolation can be more difficult than for a male,
especially if you are the sole woman among a male crew during 6 months of more or
less continuously boarding (Kitada, 2009a).
In this approach, the majority of women seafarers experience difficulties with the lack of
other women onboard to talk and share their feelings. Some women are uncomfortable
trying to join a male crew community but also they sometimes feel the need to
communicate with someone of the same gender. Often there are feelings of loneliness
when there is no one to talk to according to one interview by the journal of Monthly
Maritime Korea (Kim, 2008a). As one of ex-seafarer Korean woman put it,
ϱϳ
“Sometimes I feel lonely having no one to talk to about anything. I think actually
there is only one woman with me to talk to about any kind of subjects, I feel more
comfortable without loneliness and isolation from the male community. My
loneliness was hard to bear.’
It is natural that people are supposed to show of emotions, a tremendous sense of
comradeship between colleagues of the same sex, instead of keeping it to themselves or
hiding it as the findings in this research suggest.
Interestingly, the ILO (2007) addresses how to reduce the sense of isolation felt by many
seafarers, as expressed in the following,
“A great advantage is that is creates a more normal social environment. This is
particularly important because the nature of seafaring life has changed in recent
years. There is less time to go ashore and there are people always onboard. Having
women as part of the crew can reduce the sense of isolation felt by many
seafarers.”
For both women and men seafarers, it can be an appreciative way to be harmonized
among fewer seafarers onboard regardless of gender according to recent shipping
industry trends such as the so-called ‘normal social environment’. This research paper
would not refute that approach, however, as cited; most women seafarers are aware of
the need of a same gender group onboard to talk to or even just to chat with. Of course,
this need is not a relevant issue with males who have a sufficient same-gender crew
onboard.
For this reason, occasionally some shipping companies have managed to put women
onboard for significant periods of time being together on the same ship such as 2nd
female officer and 3rd female officer. From a shipping company point of view, it seems
ϱϴ
not to pool women together on the same ship at all times. However, a few cases are
founded in the major companies in Korea.
However, this paper addresses other aspects of isolation or loneliness, so to speak, which
might drive other situations such as stated by one European ship owner,
“[…] maybe when they go on a ship they will find somebody, make love and
maybe marry and that’s it. Their seagoing career will stop right there. So the circle
continues.” (Thomas, 2004)
Another similar example, according to the statement above by a European ship owner,
can assume that it might origin from the isolation or loneliness. Therefore, the author
would state repeatedly that one of the reasons why women look for a friendship can be
reflected somehow from the sensation of isolation experienced on board.
“Women cause problems by looking for love in the workplace, and this will
disrupt the workplace and ultimately lead to greater problems.” (Harris, et al.,
2004).
Thus, so far no studies have approached this topic and many studies regarding women
seafarers do not mention the problem of romance onboard ship. However it seems that
one of results of the negative impact of isolation or loneliness is to drive another
situation such as romance onboard ship according to many seafarers’ experience.
6.2 Sexual discrimination and sexual harassment
Many national cultures discriminate against females in the working environment (Harris,
et al., 2004). Also the shipping industry has been traditionally regarded as a male
ϱϵ
preserve and it seems that there is prejudice towards women seafarers (ILO, 2007;
Thomas, 2004; Belcher et al., 2003).
Occasionally, the question is why do women continue to demonstrate intent to work at
sea when it is so difficult to work with men onboard ship? Women seafarers, indeed
have proven they can survive onboard the ship or in the male community, how long they
can bear the workplace isolation? Can they work under a difficult environment similar to
men? The difference between males and females is from a biological and physical
perspective (O’Reilly, and O’Nelly, 2003), no less. These particular questions stem from
occupational stereotyping and discrimination.
6.2.1 Sexual discrimination
Thomas (2004) in ‘Get yourself a proper job girlie’ states,
“There are two different types of guys. One type is expecting more because they
say ‘women can’t work onboard’. And if you make one mistake they say, ‘Okay I
knew it, I knew it. Now you see, she is not able’. And there is the other type, if you
take something absolutely normal, like a hammer and you put a nail in something,
they say, ‘Oh my god, great! You can do it. I knew it. Fantastic!’ And this is also
absolutely typical after a while, because the smallest things you’re doing, they are
so, ‘Oh my god. Yes!’
Many man used to be doubtful of women seafarers ability, for example, men try to find
out what female colleagues have done completely well or not. From the shipping
company perspective, negative attitudes to the employment of women also relate to
perception of the feminine gender. As one ex-seafarer women in Korea stated,
“I received a training course at H Merchant Marine, and applied for a scholarship
but was rejected. During the interviews, I received many questions about my
ϲϬ
feminine look. They wanted to know whether I could bear the workload if I took
the job. It seems that they want a big strong man-like woman (for reference, an
engineer and a navigator were selected among the female students. The original
positions to be filled were for two engineers and five navigators. The remaining
positions were filled by male students, although they were inferior candidates the
females in terms of GPA and study ratings). I think female officers may work
better than males, but most male officers believe that there are certain limits to
female capabilities to work at sea. They think that it is dangerous to work with a
female officer because women are prone to cause accidents.”
With similar opinions to those expressed above, another ex-seafarer women in Korea
recounted sexual discrimination when shipping companies recruit as referenced below,
“Actually, most female students have been working harder and superior to male
students in terms of GPA. Most companies say that they do not discriminate
against female applicants, but most of them recruit only one female applicant. I
heard that a major shipping company employs a female applicant for formality’s
sake or for the company’s public image because it is forced to do so. […] Since I
experienced discrimination after graduation and I experienced personally how
difficult it is to join a male-oriented organization.”
Thus, this conservatism and prejudice attitude have denied to women applicants work
opportunities in the shipping industry, even if the woman’s student credentials are
higher30 than those of the male students. Employers who held negative views of women
seafarers frequently had in common the fact that they had little or no experience
employing women seafarers as marine crews.

ϯϬ Most female students of the average credit of entrance and graduation of the MMU and the KMU is
indicated higher than male student group by per year, source from KMU and MMU.
ϲϭ
On the contrary, excessive concern for female officers may have made it more difficult
on-board ship. As one ex-seafarer women in Korea stated,
“When I was on a container ship for training, the Captain tried to install another
lock to my room door which cannot be opened from the outside once locked. Of
course, such a device was against the safety regulations. Such overprotection made
me very uneasy. I could not go to a lower deck because I was a woman, and I
could not do something, because I was a woman.”
“I now know that I must lock my door before I go to sleep and I check it at least
three times. And it’s awful to think that you have to lock yourself away, but it’s a
fact of life.” (Belcher et al., 2003).
On the basis of the author’s experience, when I was a 3rd officer on a bulk carrier ship,
the Captain attached another inner locking system to my room door to disable the door
from being opened from the outside by any key or master key. In addition, the Captain
always ensured the author return to cabin during the night handover to the 2nd officer
being sure no problems were arising. For the reason, all of the crew called me the
‘Cinderella 3rd officer!!!’ because I had to be back in my cabin before 12 pm more or
less, when I had finished my duty especially night duty.
Sexual discrimination continues to exist in today’s maritime industry. One of the biggest
impacts of sexual discrimination is found in that there are comparatively less
opportunities for employment by women as seafarers. Moreover, from a practical point
of view, the efforts of shipping companies to prevent sexual harassment seems to be
insufficient to result in a company policy change reflecting a real corporate culture
adjustment that may be on the way. Even though women are employed, the existence of
sexual discrimination on ships needs to be addressed. These problems and difficulties
relative to common life on ships still exist due to a perception gap of sexuality.
ϲϮ
One of the negative impacts of sexual discrimination to address is the overprotection of
women. It comes from the perception that women are weaker than men, and that they are
more prone to accidents or errors than men. It might cause other problems whereby
women often get more favorable treatment than men. It may be evident that an
overprotection attitude can be more harmful than helpful for women.
We should appreciate the significance of these differences between men and women. Of
course, there is a need to recognize the difference of sexuality, however, these
differences are biological and physical and not those of qualifications or ability.
6.2.2 Sexual harassment including non sexual harassment
As a result of the author’s survey and in-depth interviews, it is concluded that many
women also reported problems with some male colleagues in terms of sexual harassment.
Sexual harassment is defined as intimidation, bullying or coercion of a sexual nature, or
the unwelcome or inappropriate promise of rewards in exchange for sexual favors31.
Sexual harassment is a severe and complicated issue facing women since they began to
be seafarers on cargo ships as well as on other types of ships. This author’s research
found that the majority of women responded that they face this kind of harassment
(either sexual or non sexual) onboard and have commonly heard of rumors and gossip
involving sexual harassment between female and male seafarers.
One interview with a human resource manager of a shipping company in Korea outlined
a recent case of harassment that recently occurred when a 3rd officer came into her cabin
after a party with all the crew members; she could not stop screaming when she found a
naked Pilipino sailor sitting on the edge of her bed in her cabin.

31 Source from Wikipedia
ϲϯ
Over the past few years, in Korea, a trainee deck officer sleeping in her cabin was
completely taken aback by a drunken Chief officer who kept a master key. In addition
another case, while escorting the pilot towards the navigation bridge from the pilot
embarkation area when a ship passed the channel, the pilot approached the 3rd officer
and tried to touch her by cornering her in the elevator. It seems that the 3rd officer got
stuck in the elevator at that moment.
Other reported experiences of harassment cases by Belcher et al.(2003)is,
“When I got up to go to the bridge to work, he was lying down on his side, I could
see him from my door, he was totally naked and was masturbating. […] So it
really freaked me out when he turned his head and smiled at me. So I kind of got
scared. I started arriving late for my duty watches and I asked my senior officer to
come down to escort me up.”
Thomas’s study (2004), deals with the reality of sexual harassment including sexual
comments in the guise of humor, persistent sexual invitations and unwanted physical
contact; as well as unwanted sexual attention as earlier illustrated. It reported how
women are take a number of steps to avoid such indications by locking their cabins at
night or attempting to de-feminize their appearance. Such as remarked in the definition
by Kitada (2009a), the author analyzes women seafarers’ identity introducing four
different categories; negotiators, constructors, maintainers and reproducers. They might
even be other identities when women are onboard ship.
In the past decade, there has not been any significant number of studies investigating
harassment on ships. It seems that the shipping companies are not likely to be open to
negative news in the public either: the female victims tend to hide those incidents to
avoid public exposure in a conservative society. So far in Korea, it has been
impracticable to visualize those issues to the public.
ϲϰ
Also in addition, another female ex-seafarer in Korea stated that when she was
interviewed, she remained in the ‘keep silent mode’,
“I have never been taught how to handle maltreatment or sexual harassment of
students by taking advantage of performance ratings. I believe that there have been
many similar cases which have been covered because such issues may cause
trouble for all female officers.”
The effect of sexual harassment of any form on women onboard ship can be
considerable and can have a direct influence on their career whereas the ships’
occupational hierarchies concentrates well on their personal well-being (Belcher et al.
2003). Indeed, in order to fully understand the impact of sexual harassment issues of any
form on women onboard ship, it is necessary to talk openly, to be open, and to be brave,
not just to employers, but also to women seafarers themselves. One objective of this
research is to profile sexual harassment on ships so that it can be dealt more effectively.
With more active support to prevent sexual harassment, under Article 13 of the ‘Act on
equal employment and support for work-family reconciliation’ and ‘Framework Act on
Women’s Development’32 in Korean Law, employers should play a primary role in
promoting education to ‘Prevent Sexual Harassment in the Workplace’33 at least once a

32 Framework Act on Women’s Development adopted 1995, December 30, last amendment on Act
number 8852, 2008, February 29 The purpose of this Act is to promote the equality between men and
women in all the areas of politics, economy, society and culture and to facilitate the women’s
development by stipulating the fundamental matters with regard to the obligation, etc. of the State and
local governments for realizing an idea of equality between men and women under the Constitution of
the Republic of Korea. Source form Article 1(purpose) under the ‘Framework Act on Women’s
Development’. 33 Article 13 (Education to Prevent Sexual Harassment in the Workplace) under the ‘Act on equal
employment and support for work-family reconciliation’;
(1) An employer shall conduct education in order to prevent Sexual Harassment in the workplace
(hereinafter referred to as the “education to prevent sexual harassment”) and to create a safe working
environment for workers (Amended 2007 December, 21).
ϲϱ
year,34 in order to prevent sexual harassment in the work place and to create a safe
working environment. Obviously, the majority of shipping companies conduct
educational programs against sexual harassment for employees both on shore and ships
at least once a year. Some shipping companies conduct education for newly recruited
seafarers in advance of boarding the ship. In general, such training includes illustrations
of the unacceptable, unwanted behavior, sexist remarks, sex-related behavior and details
of the company’s disciplinary procedures. It seems that employees tend to be very
positive about the existence and great importance of such policies.
However, despite the efforts and the existence of such educational training of the
shipping company policies, sexual harassment or related sexual issues continue to be
reported. The reason is the lack of sufficient educational programs to prevent related
sexual issues, not for education for education’s sake.
One of Korean women ex-seafarers interviewee proposed gave her experienced opinion
on educational programme in order to prevent sexual harassment and problems relevant
sexuality as well as to create a health working environment for both women and man
seafarers.
“I believe that there shall be extra educational programs for crew members with
the aim to prevent prejudice against female officers and […].”
To be more positive, active and efficient in such education, there is a need to have a
more practical approach to education, emphasizing how to live with different genders
onboard ships.

34 Article 3 (Education to Prevent Sexual Harassment at Work) under the ‘Act on equal employment and
support for work-family reconciliation’;
(1) Employers shall, pursuant to Article 13 of the Act, conduct education on preventing sexual
harassment at work at least once a year. (Amended by Presidential Decree No. 19366, Feb. 28, 2006)
ϲϲ
6.3 The traditional social responsibilities for women
To avoid the cultural stereotypes inherent in conceptions of masculinity and femininity,
we operationalize gender identity as gendered preferences for organizational culture in
accordance with the study by O’Reilly and O’Nelly in 2003.
This stereotype could be linked to the global expectation of a woman’s role as mother or
primary caretaker in the family (Harris, et al., 2004). This common stereotype is as
follows: if a woman’s focus is on bearing children, she would subsequently be taking
time off, and could not be considered an effective front-line executive. The Harris study
looks at a case example in Chile, whereby Chilean marital status can be an important
consideration during the hiring process and; it is generally featured at the top of a
resume with other essentials such as name, address, and phone number, along with a
photograph. A young, married woman with no children can be considered a “risky
investment” because the perception is that she will soon have children, leave her job,
and the company will have to pay for maternity expenses (Ibid).
Nevertheless, many women who choose to have children still maintain high career
aspirations and often get stuck in less challenging or demanding jobs. This is also
changing as a number of male partners and husbands of working women are staying
home to care for their children (Ibid).
In Korea, the women labour force participation rate has rapidly increased, in 1960, it
was 26.8 percent, in 1970, 37.7 percent, in 1980, 36.8 percent, 1990, 47.0 percent and in
1995, 48.3 percent. It reached a high of 49.5 percent in 1997 (Cho, 2002). It is lower
than that of major industrialized countries as seen in the following table (Min, 2006).
ϲϳ
Table 23 Korea’s female labor market participation rate
45%(’88) ĺ 49.8 %(’97) ĺ48.6%(’00)ĺ48.9%(’03)ĺ49.8%(’04)ĺ50.1%(’05)
Source: Min M.S. Strategies and action plans for creating jobs for women of Korea: Korea’s challenge and
strategy for utilization of female work force, 2006. The data surveyed by National Statistical
Office
Note: the proportion of women in employment to women in working ages who are 15 years and older
Table 24 Female labour market participation rate by nation in 2004
Korea Japan US Sweden OECD
average
Women labour force
participation rate (%)
53.9 60.2 69.2 76.6 60.1
Source: Min M.S. Strategies and action plans for creating jobs for women of Korea: Korea’s challenge and
strategy for utilization of female work force, 2006. The data from OECD Employment Outlook
(2005), OECD Society at a Glance (2005)
Note: OECD average female labor market participation rate; proportion of women in employment to
women in working ages between 15 and 64
In reality, Korea’s women labour market participation rate is lower than commonly
found. Korea still has plenty of room for improvement with regard to discrimination
against women in the work place due to the typically traditional view that a woman
should be a housewife, despite recent progress promoting gender equality. Especially the
typical Korean family still exists in the nucleus of the family-community and demands
obedience from women to keep the home, cook and take care of their babies. Therefore a
career at sea for a Korean woman is full of obstacles and certainly not very much
promoted in comparison with other occupations.
Momoko Kitada (2009b) stated, in the case of women seafarers, that it is more
complicate to keep a balance between their sea lives and maintaining a relationship
before marriage. In such a circumstance, consequently, many women weigh the pros and
cons in their minds which decision would be better for them, and then, most decide to
give up their seafaring career.
ϲϴ
In the Korean case, there is no record of the number of women seafarers who have
married and continued working onboard in cargo ships. Even when married, they
transfer to shore based job or leave the ship before they get a baby. Even though Korea
has no official data indicating married women, there may be a certain level of social
pressure or traditional social needs on a woman transferring to shore-base jobs or staying
at home after becoming a mother (Ibid).
Apart from the above state, in Korea, as indicated by the M-Curve, it is possible to see
the trend of women in their twenties and thirties who are taking on a lighter role in the
work environment when they re-enter the job market after giving birth, compared to the
kind of work they used to take on previous to childbirth and nurturing (Jang, 2006).
However, also here Korea has no official record regarding re-emerging the seafaring
market after giving birth.
Seafaring requires being onboard for several months, in fact that might not satisfy the
social role of mother or women. Thus, the social pressure or traditional social
responsibility might make her confused when deciding to be away from home or staying
at sea when she comes of a marriageable age or before marriage in general (Kitada,
2009b).
Likewise from this, society has to have the common recognition of the importance of the
utilization of the women work force. Particularly, when both men and women have a
family, they try to accept social responsibility, not only for on women (Min, 2006). This
will be the solution to the utilization of a women seafarer work force and the way
towards sustainable development.
ϲϵ
6.4 Gender inequality and unequal promotion opportunities
Unequal promotion opportunities for women seafarers might be a consequence of sexual
discrimination. Many individuals believe those gender-based preferences, whereby
individuals may be characterized as stereotypically masculine or feminine, in other
words, and a male with a masculine identity or a female with a feminine identity
(O’Reilly & O’Neill, 2003). While sex is biologically determined, gender is rather a
social construction, a product of socialization and experience (Ibid). Nevertheless, the
gender inequality and unequal opportunity for women seafarers is often faced when
applying for a job or promote in shipping industry. It seems that there is still
considerable resistance in shipping companies to hire and accept women.
When a women applies to a shipping companies in Korea, she faces an unequal
opportunity as the following statement shows,
“When I saw many of my female classmates and alumnae giving up embarkations
because there are too few opportunities for female officers be employed in a
shipping company. For example, when I graduated, the qualifications of female
students applying to the H Company were much higher than those of male students.
However, despite such good qualifications and a passion for embarkation, only a
few female officers were recruited, so many of my remaining friends were forced
to choose land-based jobs.”
In addition, four female ex-seafarers in Korea appealed to attain the same opportunities
as the male colleagues.
“The opportunities for embarkation shall be offered on equal terms. Although
somewhat difficult for now to realize, I would like to express my opinion more
freely, it is necessary for companies; not to limit the number of female officers
when recruiting.[…].”
ϳϬ
“Most companies say that they will not discriminate female applicants, but most
of them recruit only one female applicant. I heard that major shipping company
employs a female applicant for formality’s sake because it is forced to do so.”
“Actually, except some large shipping companies such as H Merchant Marine, H
Shipping or S shipping, there is little change for a woman to embark.”
“However, the economic recession reduced the quota for female students, as all
the male students could not get onboard. Shipping companies did not want to
provide opportunities for female students as they thought that female students tend
to disembark soon. I understand that male students need to get some advantages as
they have to complete alternative military duties.”
Such evidence tends to support the argument that the shipping companies have not
provided an equal opportunity to join ships or work longer period at sea. Many female
ex-seafarers officers found that they were refused opportunities to be recruited as
officers or cadets.
However, interestingly here are different points of view towards the issues of promotion
of women. The study of Belcher et al., (2003), described that their gender might have
advantages in terms of promotion prospects as this statement describes,
“Because there are so few women at sea, companies see that promoting a woman is
good for publicity. They can brag about how many women they have at sea.[…]
Oslo, I think they think that if they don’t promote her quickly enough, then she
could say, ‘well, that is sexist. You are discriminating against me because I am a
woman.’ So, if anything, I think it may be a little bit quicker so that they don’t get
seen as being sexist and they get seen in a good light because they have got women
at sea in positions of rank.”
ϳϭ
In fact that many women officers agree that they are not discriminated against in terms
of promotion onboard if they are already working in a shipping company. However,
many companies are unwilling to recruit women seafarers in the first place (Ibid). In
reality, it seems that women do have fewer opportunities to be recruited than men.
6.5 Inadequate accommodations and the environment
The topic of improving the living conditions onboard’ is not only for women, but also
for all of seafarers. Peter Cremers (2010) of the Hong Kong based Anglo-Estern Ship
Management Services, emphasizes the importance of the quality of life at sea,
“To make our industry more attractive, the living conditions onboard must be
improved to be in line with the expectations of the youngsters. The minimum
requirements must be upgraded so that the accommodation onboard feels like a
‘home’ and not a posting to a remote location.” (The Sea, 2010).
Basically, if the shipping industry aspires to attract high quality recruits, the daily
conditions and facilities have to improve accordingly. In general, it can be said that
ships’ living accommodations are strictly functional or of ergonomic design, not social
stimulation (The Sea, 2010). For commercial reasons, it seems that most ships are
designed considering economic and efficiency in order to load more cargo, and do not
consider how to make seafarers as comfortable as their home accommodation. Many
seafarers have to stay and live onboard until disembarkation, often for up to 6 month
periods. The ship might be considered a home for seafarers.
On a similar theme, even though women seafarers work on the ships, normally, most
women seafarers are engaged in either major shipping companies in which
technological large vessels like container vessels, bulk carriers according to the result of
ϳϮ
questionnaires in chapter 5. One of the reasons is that vessels have unsuitable facilities
for work and living for women seafarers, obviously, some small vessels have only one
public/common bath and toilet room, not a private bathroom. Which women can work
there for 6 months in such difficult environmental conditions?
One human resource manager in a shipping company during a telephone interview,
underlined the issue of inadequate ships living spaces for females. Even where the
shipping companies suffered in the supply of qualified seafarers, there is no room to
employ women seafarers as alternative employees. The company added that it is not
efficient given their limited budgets because they would have to consider providing new
facilities or modifying facilities and the accommodation onboard their ships tended to be
satisfying the minimum requirements according to the International rules.
“I know that most women who graduate from maritime universities are smart and
qualified as officers. However, if we consider hiring women, we have to seriously
consider all aspects that will affect what we have to do for them, such as inadequate
facilities, the likelihood of problems relating to sexuality, or […] So, to reduce the
chance of the probability of the problem, we hire stupid men rather than smart
women.”
6.6 Relatively low social recognition
Whenever the author recounted a seafarers life, the most heard words is that ‘oh, you’re
lucky, you must be able to eat raw fish easily whenever you want’ when I introduced
myself to people as ‘a seafarer’. It means that most Koreans have preconceptions,
misconceptions and stereotypes about ‘seafarers’ in terms of s merchant ships. One
common misbelief is that there is a nebulous concept regarding merchant ship’s such as
there is no line between a merchant vessel and a fishing vessel. Therefore, people can
ϳϯ
think seafarers always try to catch fish at sea, casting a net into the rough sea, and
fighting the rough sea on rolling ships under heavy weather. This is one simple imagine
about of seafaring is in Korea.
A similar case of one of the interviewees from a Korean women ex-seafarer who has
experience of less than 2 years onboard a car carrier,
“I said I am an officer on a cargo ship. However, they tried to say something a few
seconds later as the majority of them could not recognize what women officers do
on such ships. And then, most of them said, sure, ‘oh, great! Great you’ but they
looked at me with sympathy. Or others say, ‘you are a really strong person more
than a man, how is sea life and can you bear the hard work, for example the
fishing?”
One other example of widespread ignorance and prejudice of seafaring is expressed in
the following statement from a group interview by Kim (2008a).
“[…] just unsatisfied with ignorance of seafaring in general. Whenever I identify
my job as seafarer, most of them replied and asked me how much fishes catch or
how often I eat a raw fish due to their ignorance and misunderstanding of the
different between merchant ship and a fishing boat.[…] comparatively low
seafaring and shipping company awareness in common.”
“Yes, I absolutely agree with that. It might say that the shipping company should
consider seriously the low awareness of seafaring relatively in common. They
have to raise their brand name value as a shipping company and also
correspondently let all the people know the seafaring. […] There seems to be a
lack of any active effort to inform the public who seafarers are and what we do.
[…] if shipping companies take a positive attitude to inform then, it can help
ϳϰ
people to change stereotype of the awareness, but also might raise our self esteem
as seafarers.”
The above two examples from former women seafarers reflect the one side of reality of
seafaring on cargo ships in Korea. To reduce the wrong social recognition, the company
might not only contribute to give right information and a positive image of shipping to
the public, but also improve the image of seafaring as a professional global occupation.
6.7 Job dissatisfaction
One may consider job satisfaction in terms of salary. One thing is clear from the
research findings is that the salary is not the sole motivating factor in sustaining a career
at sea. Obviously there is a need to look at a number of areas such as whether seafarers
feel satisfied or dissatisfied with their job, it is difficult to define just one or two reason
why. However, the subject of this paragraph might be connected with the working
environment, which is referred to as, a ‘special job environment relative to shore-based
jobs’, not in terms of their own tasks on ship. For example, job dissatisfaction can be
caused by gender issues, relatively low social recognition, isolation, family opposition
toward seafaring, limitation of allowed shore leave35, crew size and overworked.
In accordance with Seo and Kim’s study on ‘A preliminary study on the stress
perception and ways to cope with stress for seafarers’ (2005), is describes that the
percentage of satisfied seafarers with a job is equal to 28.5 and the percentage of
dissatisfied respondents is equal to 71.5. Surprisingly, this ratio of dissatisfaction
respondent is a much higher percentage than 11.6 percent as indicated in the research by

ϯϱ In many countries, seafarers are not allowed shore leave according to the ISPS Code.
ϳϱ
Lim j.K. (1992),36 and 25.8 percent in the research by KIMFT (1998).37 The important
point is that the ratio of job dissatisfaction has taken a sudden turn for the worse, and has
rapidly increased in recent.
The impact of job dissatisfaction may affect transfers to shore-based jobs. Thus, as
mentioned earlier, all aspects of job dissatisfaction can have a great ripple effect on each
other elements as being formed and not only on a single particular issue.

36 See for ‘ A study on seafaring activity and job satisfaction’ by Lim J.K in 1992
37 See for ‘ A study on safe operation and measures against oil carrier in near Korea coast’ by Korea
Institute and Maritime Fisheries Technology in 1998
ϳϲ
Chapter 7 Corporate Social Responsibility
7.1 The shipping industry through CSR activities
The concept of ‘Corporate Social Responsibility’ (CSR) has become a major aspect of
aspect of corporate strategic planning and policy in recent years because of expanding
international markets and growing economic globalization business (Verena, 2010;
Fafaliou, et al, 2002). This powerful concept creates the wider society’s awareness of
social and environmental needs as well as the companies have to face challenge of
business alliances and stakeholders to establish CRS in the mainstream of their business
practices and policy making ;Fafaliou, et al., 2002). CSR, recognizes the crucial role of
business, for example, the company manager has to include in their concerns how
market value is generated and perceived, the role of corporate reputation and the role of
management (Ibid) itself as well to consider the close link between stakeholders and
employees, customers, stockholders, collaborators, local community and nongovernmental organizations (Kim, 2009).
Nevertheless, in fact, the term CSR, is not a well-established term yet and is not very
much in use among private and public Korean companies ;Ibid). Whilst the discussion
and debate of CSR has been wide ranging among many developed countries such as
Europe and USA, contrarily, in the case of Korea, there has not yet been enough
consideration and study regarding CSR in both practically and theatrically so far (Ibid).
This chapter attempts to be a first step forward towards exploring the definition of the
CSR concept and the new paradigm of CSR from a human element perspective that
focus on employees. Subsequent sections of this chapter focus on the role of CSR
toward seafarers especially on women seafarers. From the shopping company point of
view, there is a need to face the challenges better in the social and working environment
ϳϳ
in accordance with the results of the questionnaires and interviews. This research found
that there are considerable factors to improve company policies particularly on the
support systems for women and the social environment in order to provide more
opportunities for women to go to sea. Therefore, the conclusions of the analysis and
issues based on the above research results would highlight the need for women seafarers.
7.2 Definition of CSR
The European Commission has offered a definition of CSR, in 200138as follows;
“Most definitions of corporate social responsibility describe it as a concept
whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business
operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis.’
The Norwegian Shipowner’s Association, who voluntarily adopted CSR commented that
CSR is ‘the willing inclusion by businesses of social and environmental concerns in the
commercial activities and their relations with their stakeholders.39’ (Bohler, K. L. (2008).
Furthermore, the European Commission (2001) briefly provides a clear statement of the
role of CSR in changing global market environment as described below;
“As companies face the challenges of a changing environment in the context of
globalization and in particular the internal market, they are increasingly aware that
corporate social responsibility can be of direct economic value. Although the
prime responsibility of a company is generating profits, companies can at the same
time contribute to social and environmental objectives, through integrating
corporate social responsibility as a strategic investment into their core business
strategy, their management instruments and their operations.” (EU, 2001)

38 See Green Paper: Promoting a European framework for Corporate Social Responsibility. from the
World Wide Web: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2001/com2001_0366en01.pdf
39 See Bohler, K.L. ‘CSR strategy focus top management commitment.’ 2008
ϳϴ
Among the various roles of CSR, Beckman40 (2010) analyzes the importance of CSR as
follows,
“The continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to
economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and
their families, as well as of the local community and society at large.’
Beckman (2010) emphasize employee loyalty as one of the most crucial roles of CSR in
helping in the recruitment of new staff and retention of employees. Also supporting the
above idea, the Nautical Institute (2004), states,
‘ A quality company also invests in its people, by providing them with a safe and
secure working environment, decent living conditions and fair terms of
employment, and by promoting a Company Culture though the communication
and empowerment.’
Specifically, there is a correlation between the concept of CSR and the employee
element. Fafaliou et al. (2002), demonstrate by explaining that stakeholders may be both
internal (e.g. employees) and external to an enterprise (e.g. customers, suppliers,
shareholders, financial institutions, the local community). In summary, the internal
social responsibility of an enterprise is considered as the basis for and an integral part of
its external responsible activity. The areas in which internal CSR is implemented
incorporates respect for employees’ rights (e.g. assurance of fair and prompt payment,
support of employees’ balance of work and family time, respect of their leisure time),
security and even improvement of health and safety conditions, training, etc. The direct
beneficiaries of CSR internal responsibility are the corporations’ human resources (Ibid).

40 See reference, Beckman, R.C ‘Successful cases of CSR Activities. The problem of the global shortage
of seafarers and the role of the shipping industry through CRS activities’ during the conference by
Japan International Transport Institute & The Nippon Foundation, 2010.
ϳϵ
Overall, CSR is expected to take a proactive approach to sustainable development (EU,
2001
7.3 Corporate social responsibility: Internal dimension
Accordingly, the European Commission (2001)41 defined CSR as composed of both
internal and external dimensions. The former, as mentioned, may be employees, while
the latter may be customers, suppliers, shareholders, financial institutions, and the local
community according Fafaliou’s study (2001). Of course, the theory of CSR relies on
being systematic and developing employees to suit to new eras, and the new paradigm
concept of CSR encompasses the practical use and contribution to social evolution
through innovative changes in the 21st century.
As Kim (2009) declared, CSR evolved into a more practical stage from a controversial
stage at the end of the 20th century. As the result of innovation to the CSR theory, it has
been broadened to include the overall responsibility such as the legal, economic,
political, social, cultural, artistic and that concrete social responsibility and
accountability have been systematized (Ibid). In addition, its main stakeholders are
namely the employees, customers, stockholders, collaborators, local community and non
government organizations. Amongst the stakeholders above, the protection of the rights
and interests of employees, have been established as follows;
(1) salary, promotion of equity, (2) stability and continuity of employment efforts
(3) efforts to create jobs (4) women employees, minority groups (a multi culture
families) of elimination of discrimination (5) drug and alcohol addiction,

ϰϭ Green Paper, ‘ Promoting a European framework for Corporate Social Responsibility.’ from the World
Wide Web: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2001/com2001_0366en01.pdf
ϴϬ
protection from sexually transmitted diseases (6) education, training, strengthening
(technical improvements, capacity building, strengthening retraining) (7) effort to
provide communication channels with employees (Kim, 2009).
In addition, CSR describes what specifics subjects would be satisfied employees through
the company’s social responsibility as shown in Table 25, according to Kim’s theory
(2009).
Table 25 Satisfaction with employees through company ability
object The detailed company social responsibility and contribution
Suitable employment system for newly graduated school or university students
Consider employment for older workers, physical or financial handicapped person,
Keep control or balance between gender, academic achievement, age etc.
Establish and implement the welfare programme
Establish the welfare fund and efficient operation
Operate nursery or day care centers for married women workers
Educational support for children
Support to form personal property through employee stock ownership association,
individual retirement account etc
Financial support for marriage and death
Severance payment system
Support for pension, pension plan and industrial accident compensation insurance
Actual expense management for consumer’s cooperation
Employee
Temporary support for dismissed an employees
Source: Kim S.S . ‘A Study on the history of theoretical changes of corporate social responsibility, Korean
Corporation Management Association, May, 2009.
7.4 Corporate social responsibility in shipping companies
Around 90 percent of world trade (UNCTAD, 2009) is carried by the international
seaborne trade. Seaborne trade continues to expand, bringing benefits and goods for
ϴϭ
consumers across the world through competitive costs. There is growing efficiency of the
shipping industry as new modern technology transport infrastructure and increased
economic liberalization occurs, and the prospects for the shipping industries further will
be more growth gradually strengthening this industry. Shipping company services are
produced to satisfy the delivery of various cargoes on time, secure and safely according
their contracts with their customers. Primarily, how to proper handle cargoes and safe
transport is the main objective of a shipping company’s goals. In short, it seems that most
shippers emphasis this objective of a company’s goals rather than how to deal with their
employees by providing a good working environment.
However, the reason for the existence of company seems to be changing to innovate to
survive in the competitive environment of the shipping market. The trend and strategy of a
Quality Company is to change and innovate and adapt control mechanisms that will be
better for all of the elements, including the human element which is a current trend as
described Figure 12.
Source : Kim S.S . ‘A Study on the history of theoretical changes of corporate social
responsibility, Korean Corporation Management Association, May, 2009.
Figure 12 New paradigm of CSR
ϴϮ
In Figure 12, the centric business management theory suggests that the reason for the
existence of a company was to maximize profits as a value of an enterprises’ existence.
However, the 21st century business needs to shift the paradigm to the ‘Copernican theory’
management from the ‘geocentric theory’ management. Simply, a new paradigm of CSR
from the Copernican theory is recommended so that a company should wrap its planet and
turn around. This means, that both shipping companies and employees including all
stakeholders are in a win-win situation.
It is evident that in order to survive in the competitive shipping market, companies have
not only to attempt to improve the control mechanisms such as the safety and quality
standards of shipping operations, but also need to create a healthy work environment for
employees and to address stakeholder’s needs. If shipping companies adopt an effective
CSR policy, it will not only improve the image of the shipping industry, it will indirectly
Help in the recruitment and retention of seafarers (Beckman, 2010). In addition, it is
inherent that stakeholder relationships and long-term value-oriented company strategies,
rather than short-term trading to pursue a relationship (Lee, 2010).
This paper, as already mentioned, focuses on seafarers and especially women seafarers.
Therefore, the author addresses the strategy to survive together, from both the company
and the female seafarers’ perspective through the results of the questionnaires and
interviews in the following paragraph. Therefore, what are the strategies and challenges of
CSR that arise from seafarers, especially for women seafarers, to get an opportunity to
have longer onboard careers, and to retain seafarers? This paper explores the needs and
expectations of seafarers towards their company activities, what will be the established
institutional frameworks of CSR. The focus of this research discussion has been on how
approaches attract seafarers and are established according to CSR activity.
ϴϯ
Chapter 8 Conclusion and recommendations
Before drawing any conclusions, the top priority for shipping companies should
obviously be to regard seafarers as one of the important skateholder elements in any
company, not just a cost element in economic terms (Monthly Maritime Korea, 2008). In
shortly, there is needs to be an awareness of seafarers as contributors in accomplishing a
high qualtiy seaborne trade service a cross the world, that is qualified professionals who
enjoy a rich work exprience. Another crucial point is how effectivly a manager or
decision maker in a shipping company can encourage and instill pride in seafarers.
Therefore, current the problems which surround today seafarers will be solved when
shipping companies change their perception towards seafarers first of all, not just
becuase they are employees. Shipping company should consider that seafarers are as an
one of bussiness partners as well as one other skateholders. Therefore, the author
recommends what ultimate strategies need to be created to make a working environment
focusing on women seafarers as a priority.
8.1 Strategic expansion of women seafarers
8.1.1 Support and motivation to go to sea
The author believes that shipping companies have been already prepared to listen to
women seafarers attentively as to the support they require on board ship. Today,
shipping companies should be capable of contributing to the development of a corporate
culture in the more proactive and practical way. To achieve the ultimate corporate
culture, it must be borne in mind that the key point is to motivate and encourage women
seafarers as well as establish a vision of a seafarers job (Hwang, 2008b).
ϴϰ
Shipping companies are recommended to explore the possibility of a new job-version for
the woman seafarer which they would be the best professional career in maritime field
as well as they would be a high quality human resources.
Therefore, shipping companies need to take a view a long-term perspective and make a
drastic investment (Ibid) in women seafarers within future-oriented thinking. In order to
acknowledge how to motive women seafarers within shipping company, this research
advocates a more practical approach as described in the following paragraphs of this
chapter.
8.1.2 Create consideration for equal opportunities
Definitely, the number of women seafarers is a minority in the shipping industry
throughout the world. However, it is evident that many women desire to attain a job at
sea. Despite the rising numbers of applications for positions on board ship in recent
years, it has been hard to open an ‘employment’ door in this competitive job market.
Gender equality is the basis of civilized, human rights and a developed society. Also the
issues regarding gender equality in the maritime industry are now being raised
universally. Giving more opportunities to women seems to be a pretty trite slogan but, as
a matter of fact, such opportunities are not given equally to women in the shipping
industry. Consequently, although there are established as high quality policies for
employment, they are not often focused on women seafarers.
It is obvious that there is a diversity of reasons for shipping companies if they hesitate to
willingly hire women. However, if they seldom offer the same opportunity, how do
women prove they have the qualification and ability to do a seafaring job? The shipping
company should establish an employment equality policy and encourage the hiring of
women on a similar basis to men (Aggrey, 2000).
ϴϱ
8.1.3 Training and education for understanding and harmonizing with females
Many shipping companies seek to create a workplace environment that is inspiring and
develops diverse talent in order to carry out the performance of ship operations in an
effective way. A key component in this system focuses on improving the ways to verify
knowledge and the skill mastery of the ship’s crew such as maneuvering, cargo handling,
ship handling simulator, job familiar course, support on-the-job training and E-learning.
The majority of shipping companies have developed a uniform set of training and
educational programs, and practical material for seafarers in order to effectively improve
their skills, namely, ‘best tailored training’.
The more proactive shipping companies have established their own training and
education centers and hire their own training instructors to enhance the skills of seafarers.
It seems that shipping companies and training institutions are shifting gears from doing
only what is required, to doing what is right to improve the skills seafarers and the
overall safety at sea. More detailed training programmes of the ship, should include the
drills to be carried out over regular periods, in accordance with the International
regulations such as SOLAS, MARPOL, STCW 78/95.
However, shipping companies need to provide a gender familiarization programme to be
harmonized with females. Even the employed seafarers prior to embarkation on ships are
provided with familiarization training according to STCW before being assigned to
particular duties, which does not involve gender issues. In general, it includes particulars
of ship, type of cargoes, main ship sailing routes and other relevant basic information to
provide for a safe and efficient performance. However, the author would recommend
that the most significant thing to understand the gender issues would be a shift in the
male seafarer’s awareness through the gender familiarization programme. The gender
familiarization programmer should contain elements from the basic gender issues of how
to create balance and harmony between different genders in the work environment in
ϴϲ
order to reduce the potential for sexual discrimination against females, cultivate the
ship’s communal culture, as well as create a gender friendly working environment.
Also it is important that the programme should include an acceptance of the ship’s
hierarchy when women are established in senior positions. Although infrequent, there
still exists the problem of male seafarers who are unable to take orders from women
(Belcher, et al., 2003)
8.1.4 Establish a sex harassment policy and control
Special education programmes regarding sexual harassment are commonly conducted in
the industry in accordance with national regulations. This education is under the Article
13 of the ‘Act on Equal employment and Support for Work-Family Reconciliation’ and
the ‘Framework Act on Women’s Development’.42 Under Korean Law, the employer
should conduct education to ‘Prevent Sexual Harassment in the Workplace’43 at least a
once year,44 in order to prevent sexual harassment in the work place.
Such education is often done prior to new employees joining a ship or at the
commencement of a sea voyage. In general, the training includes illustrations of

42 Framework Act on Women’s Development adopted 1995, December 30, last amendment on Act
number 8852, 2008, February 29 The purpose of this Act is to promote the equality between men and
women in all the areas of politics, economy, society and culture and to facilitate the women’s
development by stipulating the fundamental matters with regard to the obligation, etc. of the State and
local governments for realizing an idea of equality between men and women under the Constitution of
the Republic of Korea. Source form Article 1(purpose) under the ‘Framework Act on Women’s
Development’ 43 Article 13 (Education to Prevent Sexual Harassment in the Workplace) under the ‘Act on equal
employment and support for work-family reconciliation’;
(1) An employer shall conduct education in order to prevent Sexual Harassment in the workplace
(hereinafter referred to as the “education to prevent sexual harassment”) and to create a safe working
environment for workers. (Amended 2007 December, 21) 44 Article 3 (Education to Prevent Sexual Harassment at Work) under the ‘Act on equal employment and
support for work-family reconciliation’;
(1) Employers shall, pursuant to Article 13 of the Act, conduct education on preventing sexual
harassment at work at least once a year. (Amended by Presidential Decree No. 19366, Feb. 28, 2006)
ϴϳ
unacceptable, unwanted behavior, sexist remarks, sex-related behavior and details of
company disciplinary procedures. It seems that employees tend to be very positive about
the existence and high profile of such policies.
Obviously, the majority of shipping companies conduct education on sexual harassment
for employees both shore-based and onboard ship at least a once year. Some shipping
companies conduct education for new seafarers prior to embarkation.
However, this research indicates that small and medium sized shipping companies have
routinely provided a sexual harassment procedure under company policy as a matter of
form. Even though, these companies have a sexual harassment policy according to a
quality system, it seems these policies are not sufficient to prevent the problem.
In order to guarantee a safer ship board environment, the author would suggest that
shipping companies need to install formal grievance procedures, whereby employees are
invited to air their grievances which relate to sex discrimination, sexual harassment or
abuse of power and other aspects relating to sexual behavior. It should incorporate
disciplinary action measures, follow-up measures, and assure the confidentiality of
employees and identify the designated persons who deal with such enquiries relating to
those issues. It should carry out the role as the reception window when women want to
report their problems.
8.1.5 Establishment of specific policies for women seafarers
Shipping companies should establish diversified welfare programmes for women such as
the granting of medical leave for menstrual periods, pregnancy policy, granting of
maternity leave and reinstatement of employment. Such a menstrual leave is stated under
the Article 83 (Menstruation Holiday45) of the ‘Act on Seafarers46’ under Korea Law,

45 Article 83 (Menstruation Holiday): The shipowner shall grant a female seafarer one day of menstruation
ϴϴ
where women seafarers are entitled to one day of menstrual leave every month.
However, with a ship’s special duty working environment and the rotation of duty time
between three duty officers per day, it is not easy to request and receive menstrual leave
without adequate notice (Lee, 1999).
This research indicates that most respondents want to establish company policies for
women. For example, when a female officer embarks after childbirth, the company will
have to support the upbringing of the baby (allowance for diapers, formulas, etc.) and to
allow the embarkation of a nursery governess. In other words, companies should
consider offering proper welfare policies for women to work comfortably after childbirth.
The above examples of menstrual leave are far from the present situation in Korea
according this research data 47 ; however, within a future-oriented policy, shipping
companies should attempt to provide a proactive welfare programme to guarantee
women that they would be treated with a better working environment.
Also, the most important message is that it is essential to create a corporate culture in
which women can request access to the above programmes without any concerns the
companies would not accept such requests.
8.1.6 Females working together
The author’s research demonstrates that most women officers feel the impacts of
isolation or loneliness as they are the only females on board ship. The majority of

holiday in a month. (Amended 1990 August, 1)
46 Act on Seafarers adopted 1962, January 10, last amendment on Act number 9851, 2009, December 29
The purpose of this Act is to prescribe the duties, services, standard of labor conditions, occupational
security, and education and training for seafarers so as to keep the orders on the vessel, to secure and
improve seafarer’s basic life, and also to promote seafarers’ qualities. Source form Article 1(purpose)
under the ‘Act on Seafarers’ ϰϳ This research found that there are no records of women who that re-enter shipping companies as
seafarers after childbirth.
ϴϵ
women expressed difficulties with the lack of other women onboard to talk to and share
their feelings. To solve these problems, the author would suggest that shipping
companies should attempt to put more than one woman onboard for voyages of
significant periods (Kitada, 2009a; Kim, 200848; Kim, 2008a49).
The author agrees with Kitada (2009a) who has recommended that to increase the
number of women seafarers there is a need to change the mentality and create a better
working environment for both men and women. Also her study quotes a ‘critical mass
theory’ to emphasis the number of women seafarers, indicating that there should be at
least three women in a crew of ten persons on a ship.
To put more women together onboard ship may be difficult from practical points of view,
nevertheless, it is important that shipping companies attempt to implement the
placement of women together on board the same ship.
8.1.7 Creation of a family-friendly company and social culture
Major shipping companies provide, an ‘On Board Ship with Family’ Programme within
the regular company’s policy. This has been evaluated as a positive effect and that it can
provide emotional stability for the seafarers and greatly inspire and motivate seafarers
towards ship performance (Kim, 2008b50). For example, the K shipping company took
the step with the ‘On Board Ship with Family’ Programme’ in 1975, and the programme
has expanded for seafarers who have a minimum experience onboard ship of at least 2
years, and includes wives or husbands and children, up to a maximum of 3 persons per
seafarer. The programme has been limited to ship voyages, ship sailing routines and
some types of ships due to safety and security reasons.

48 See reference, Kim C.H. (2008)
49 See reference, Kim K.M (2008a)
50 See reference, Kim K.M. (2008b)
ϵϬ
Nevertheless, many seafarers have undertaken the programme with their families and
actually the users who applied for this progamme is increasing within shipping
companies (Ibid).
The ‘On Board Ship with Family’ Programme is one of the solutions for seafarers who
can be far away from their families for a long period time, and feel isolated and lonely
under the special ship circumstances. However, it is limited according to a company’s
policy to those who have enough careers and a limited family size. Surprisingly, the
majority of women seafarers are single. Therefore, the author would recommend the
programme to be applied broader and more flexibly, for example, the programme would
be open to parents, fiancés, etc and encourage family members to visit the ship when at
berth.
Another solution to encourage seafarers to choose a sea career is to make
communications available by Babsal (2009). The author would recommend that the
shipping companies provide communication tools to allow seafarers to instantly contact
their families, friends and loved ones. To attract young people to go to sea, shipping
companies should make full use of the advancement in scientific technology such as the
internet. They are aware that such technology is available on board ships as a
communication tool that is virtually free; therefore, seafarers using this technology will
no longer feel they are alone in the center of the ocean anymore.
8.2 Concluding statement
Amartya Kumar Sen, an eminent Indian economist who won the Nobel Prize in
Economic Science for his contribution to work on welfare economics in 1998, has stated,
(Song, 2006):
ϵϭ
“Nothing is more important in economic development than women’s participation.”
Seafarers, have been playing a key human resource role in the maritime industry.
Therefore, at this point of time, the employment of seafarers and welfare programmes
within shipping companies are significant factors towards encouraging seafarers, as well
as shipping companies to view seafarer employment from a long-term perspective and
make a greater investment in women as seafarers.
Inter alia, how we could efficiently utilize the female work force in the maritime labor
market is a major factor to increase the number of women seafarers. The integration of
women in the seafarer career is not possible without support from international
organizations and national governments alone or by any individual efforts. Company
cooperation is the most crucial factor (Min, 2006) as it creates jobs as well as a better
working environment.
When shipping companies remove discrimination against women, hire people on their
performance and attempt to enhance the organizational culture and institutions to set up
gender-neutral workplaces, the integration of women seafarers as a resource could bring
about visible results (Ibid). This will be an effective solution to better utilize Korea’s
women seafarers and the way forward to sustainable development.
Who can forecast the sea of the future? The present research concludes that women
seafarers also greatly contribute to keeping the maritime environment and oceans safer
and clean in the future. The Deputy of TC in IMO, Tansey (2010) in a recent address
stated that, women had little chance to do this at present. Obviously, the author further
emphasizes stating that, ‘women seafarers must be expected and they will respond as
key actors in the maritime field in the near future.’
ϵϮ
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APPENDIX
Appendix 1 Questionnaire
A. Profile of the seafarer
1. How old are you?
2. What is your occupation currently?
PSCO VTS operator Seafarer
Korea Coast
Guard
Government
officer
Ship building
yard
Shipping
company manager
Shipping
company junior
Inspector or
surveyor
Teacher
or instructor
University master
or doctor degree
student
Looking for
employment
Homemaker other
3. What kinds of ship did you serve mostly?
Container Bulk
carrier
Gas
carrier
LNG
carrier
Oil Tanker Cars
carrier
Training
ship Others
4. What was main reason you work at sea before? (please, tick one box only)
ϭϬϭ
1 For the opportunity to see other countries
2 To earn more money
3 To other special job experience and then transfer to a shore based for
in the further
4 To examine myself and satisfy my desire for a different environment
5 Couldn’t find other job ashore
6 Other (please write in )
5. How long had you been worked at sea? Or have you been worked at sea?
Less than 1 year 1 – 3 years 3 – 5 years
5 – 8 years More than 8
years
6. What is your last rank (position) when you on board ship?
Master Chief
officer
2nd
officer
3rd
officer
Chief
engineer
1st
engineer
2nd
engineer
3rd
engineer
Radio
officer
Apparent
officer
Apparent
Engineer
B. Experience at sea
7. Had you have any of the following problems with your colleagues? (please, tick
all box if you have)
1 None
2 Intentional ignorance
3 Bullying
4 Sexual discrimination
5 Non sexual harassment : verbal or physical
6 Abuse of power
7 Sexual harassment
8 Other (please write in )
ϭϬϮ
8. Which of the following difficulty to retain had you ever felt on seafarers’ job?
You can answer in order of priority from no. 1 to no.5.
1 Sexual discrimination from male colleagues
2 Non-sexual harassment from male colleagues
3 Sexual harassment from male colleagues
4 Gender inequality; unequal promotion opportunities
5 Isolation or loneliness
6 Inadequate accommodations for female
7 Demands to change to a shore based job from family and/or fiancé ;
opposition to a seafarers job
8 Relatively low social recognition
9 Could not feel pride and confidence in your job
10 Traditional social responsibility for women ; marriage, nurturing
children
11 Specialty of job and physical difficulty related to job
12 Other (please write in )
9. When you had a problem at sea, how did you deal with this?
1 Keep it to yourself
2 Share it with family and/or friends
3 Share it with colleagues and get support from them
4 Report it to your senior (ie, Captain, chief officer, chief engineer, etc)
5 Report it to company’s manager immediately
6 Report it to Seafarers Union
7 Other (please write in )
10. To solve those problems and difficulties, what areas do you think should be
improved and developed for woman seafarers? You can answer in order of priority
from no. 1 to no.3.
1 No special requirements
2 The effort of improvements by self-motivated
3 Seafarer Union’s proactive support
4 Korea has a social role and responsibility for females
5 Shipping company’s policy and social responsibility
6 International organization’s multilateral effort and investment
7 Other (please write in )
ϭϬϯ
11. According to Question No. 10 ‘Shipping company’s policy and social
responsibility’, women point of view, what changes are need to provide suficient
support from shipping company when you are onboard? You can answer in order
of priority from no. 1 to no.5.
1 No special requirement
2 Free contact with family and/friends through mailing, phone calling,
fax etc
3 Grantee of medical leave for menstrual period
4 Pregnancy policy, grantee of maternity leave and reinstatement
5 Encourage policies to work at sea
6 Welfare policy
7 Adequate accommodation facilities
8 Consideration for female group onboard to support one another
9 Training and education for seafarers
10 Other (please write in )
12. Would you like to recommend other woman to do same job as you?
Yes No I am not sure,
don’t know
13. Do you have any further comments?

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