Posted: October 20th, 2022

GLOBAL APPROACH AND REGIONAL COOPERATION OF BLACK SEA COUNTRIES ON THE PROBLEM OF INVASIVE SPECIES

GLOBAL APPROACH AND REGIONAL COOPERATION OF BLACK SEA
COUNTRIES ON THE PROBLEM OF INVASIVE SPECIES

Abstract
The productivity of water ecosystems plays a significant role in the development of
human society. People delimitate oceans and the seas, however, ocean creatures are not
and on ships, invade new ecosystems and harm them.
Invasive alien species are now globally recognized as one of the biggest problems in
shipping, which impacts environment, social economics and human health. Due to the
international nature of shipping, it is positively to eliminate the problem of invasive
species, but only to find the most efficient ways of controlling the situation. Efficient
control is impossible at the national level only, that is why the co-operation at the
international level is so important here. Therefore, the International Convention for the
Con
Management Convention) was adopted in 2004 and is expected to enter into force in the
nearest future. It still causes a lot of discussions from the stakeholders.
The Black Sea is a very vulnerable water ecosystem due to its nature, and it suffered big
losses a lot by the invasive alien species, especially last in two decades.
The purpose of this dissertation is to study the current state of the problem of Aquatic
Invasive Species in the Black Sea Region, and to assess the effectiveness of cooperation
in the region. During the research, some major challenges were identified, and some
recommendations were given as per more effective actions towards the solution of the
problem.
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Keywords: Shipping, Alien species, Black Sea, Ballast water, Bio-fouling,Ballast Water
Management Convention.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration ii
Acknowledgment …
Abstract
Table of contents
List of Tables and Figures
List of Abbreviations
1. Introduction
1.1. General remarks
1.2. Key actors
1.3. Aim and methodology
2. Basic understanding of the problem of invasive alien species 6
2.1. Vectors of the invasive species transfer ..
2.2. Basic physiology of marine organisms .. 8
2.3. Classification of invasive alien species
2.4. Ecological and socio-economic impacts
3. Global approach to the problem of aquatic invasive alien species 18
3.1. International response 8
3.2. IMO and international regulations . 24
3.3. Methods of controlling the problem . 33
4. The Black Sea Region: basic knowledge 46
4.1. History, geography, ecology and socio-economy of the region 46
4.2. Alien species in Black Sea and their impact 49
5. Black Sea region cooperation on the problem of AIS 7
5.1. Regional cooperation and its objectives 7
5.2. GloBallast in Black Sea Region 2
6. Conclusions 69
Appendix A
Appendix B
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Appendix B
References
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 1 – Key international actors
Figure 2 Figure 2 – Schematic of the Schematic of the mechanism mechanism
Figure 3 Schematic of the chosen methodology
Figure 4 – Classification of organisms based on metabolism
Figure 5 – The step establishment process of alien species in a new ecosystem. .
Figure 6 – Classification of bio-fouling
Figure 7 – Fuel Penalty vs. Increased Roughness
Figure 8 IMO, GEF and UNDP cooperation on GloBallast Programme 32
Figure 9 – NIS Treatment Options for Ballast Water
Figure 10 – Sequential Ballast Water Exchange Schematic .
Figure 11 – Flow-through Water Exchange Schematic .
Figure 12 Thermal Ballast Water Treatment .
Figure 13 – Using heat waste ofship engines for on-board ballast water treatment . 42
Table 1. Targets and priorities regarding AIS 0
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AFS Anti-fouling System
AIS Aquatic Invasive Species
BS SAP Black Sea Strategic Action Plan
BS TDA Black Sea Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
BSC Commission on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution
BSEC Black Sea Economic Cooperation organization
BWE Ballast Water Exchange
BWM Ballast Water Management
BWMS Ballast Water Management System
BWT Ballast Water Treatment
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
EU European Union
GEF Global Environmental Facility
GESAMP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine
Environmental Protection
IMO International Maritime Organization
IOS Internal Oversight Service
LME Large Marine Ecosystem
MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
MEPC Marine Environment Protection Committee
MSC Maritime Safety Committee
NGOs Nongovernmental organizations
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NIS Non-indigenous Species
SOLAS International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
STCW International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and
Watchkeeping for Seafarers
TBT Tributyltin
UN United Nations
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO United Nations Organization for Education, Science and Culture
UV Ultraviolet
WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development
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1. Introduction
1.1. General remarks
About two thirds of the surface of the Earth is covered with water such as oceans,
seas, rivers and estuaries, which involve many kinds of ecosystems. The productivity of
these ecosystems plays a significant role in the development of human society,
especially those settled along coastal areas. Currently, about a half of the world`s
population live within 200 kilometres of a coast line (Creel, 2003). However, not only
human beings, but billions of species of the water creatures animals, plants and algae
are dependent on water ecosystems, as it is the only option for their living, feeding, and
reproduction.
People delimitate oceans and the seas in accordance with their political agreements
and each country knows and protects its boundaries; however, ocean creatures are not
without documents and stay in new ecosystems without residence permits. Definitely
most of the species do not want to leave voluntarily their regular habitats, where they are
being a part of a tooled food chain, with perfect temperature, salinity and other
conditions. Unfortunately, in most cases species are transported by people, either
intentionally or not.
Over 90% of the world trade is done by means of the maritime transport (IMO,
2008a) as it is the cheapest way of transporting goods in big amounts on long distances.
Year after year, speeds are increasing and the shipping industry is growing rapidly in
size. Since times when shipping became international, so-called unwanted stowaways
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size. Since times when shipping became international, so-called unwanted stowaways
started the history of their voyag hulls and in ballast
waters. Shipping is now agreed to be thepredominant vector of transporting alien
species around the world. Even though this problem has existed for centuries already,
the public awareness was raised only in the 1970s, when the scientific community
started reviewing this issue in details.
Invasive alien species are now recognized as one of four major problems in shipping.
Impacts have different levels and aspects, such as environmental aspect, including losses
of indigenous biodiversity in ecosystems, anddecreased habitat availability for
indigenous species, socio-economic aspect, including huge material losses and threat to
human health due to parasites and disease.
As far as international shipping exists, it is positively impossible to eliminate the
problem of invasive species; the only aim today is to find the most efficient ways of
controlling the situation. However, efficient control is definitely impossible at the
national level only, as mostwater bodies are surrounded by at least few countries and
out the borders. The co-operation at the international and even
global level is absolutely important here.
The International Maritime Organization took the responsibility to build an efficient
international legal framework and help member states to develop regional and national
policies. During last 40 years a significant progress has been achieved in this matter;
however, the problem still exists and remains one of the biggest threats to global oceans.
Shipping is probably the most international industry in the world and the approach to
the problem should be international and should involve more actors.
1.2. Key actors
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There are three major international actors, involved in co-operation on solving the
problem of invasive alien species, as shown in Figure 1:
GloBallast
IMO
Figure 1 – Key international actors
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is the United Nations specialized
agency, established in 1948 in Geneva as a permanent international body for more
effective promotion of maritime safety and security of shipping and the prevention of
BSC
marine pollution by ships. The IMO Convention entered into force in 1958 and the first
Organization meeting was held following year. The purpose of the IMO, according to
the Convention, is “to provide machinery for cooperation among Governments in the
field of governmental regulation and practices relating to technical matters of all kinds
affecting shipping engaged in international trade; to encourage and facilitate the general
adoption of the highest practicable standards in matters concerning maritime safety,
efficiency of navigation and prevention and control of marine pollution from ships”.
The Global Ballast Water Management Programme (GloBallast)was established in 2000
by joined forces of Global Environmental Facility (GEF), the United Nations
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Development Programme (UNDP) and International Maritime Organization (IMO) to
Help developing countries to:
reduce the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens in ships’ ballast
water,
implement the IMO ballast water Guidelines,
prepare for the new IMO ballast water Convention.
The Commission on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution (the Black Sea
Commission or BSC) was established by Black Sea countries with the purpose of
implementing the provisions of the Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea
against Pollution and Protocol sand the Strategic Action Plan for the Environmental
Protection and Rehabilitation of the Black Sea (latest version adopted in 2009). Main
challenges of the Commission are stated as:
Combating Pollution from land-based sources and maritime transport,
Achieving sustainable management of marine living resources,
Pursuing sustainable human development.
1.3. Aim and methodology
The purpose of this dissertation is to study the current state of the problem of Aquatic
Invasive Species in the Black Sea and to assessthe effectiveness of the cooperation of
Black Sea states regarding this problem, analyse the mechanism in which regional
cooperation and national response are driven by international regulations, as shown in
Figure 2.
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International
regulations
National
response
Figure 2 – Schematic of the mechanism
This aim will be achieved by studying basic methods of controlling the problem of
invasive species in the Black Sea together with effectiveness ofthe international and
regulations
Regional
cooperation
response
regional regulations in solving the problem, as shown in Figure 3.
International
regulations and
methods of
controlling the
problem
Black Sea context
and regional
cooperation and
regulations
The effectiveness of
the regional
cooperation and its
comfirmity with the
international
standards
5
Figure 3 Schematic of the chosen methodology
2.Basic understanding of the problem of invasive alien species
2.1.Vectors of the invasive species transfer
As long as the international shipping exists, it has been a predominant vector of
transporting marine and terrestrial nonindigenous species around the globe.
Commencingat least by the fifteenth century, nonindigenous species were
unintentionally transferred all over the world in holes of wooden vessels, by hull fouling,
with solid ballast, such as rocks and sand, with cargo, deck and bilge debris. However
already archaeological records show that Vikings, probably for food, brought home with
them species of the large North American clam. (Poorter, 2010) Manyof these invaders,
as well as a wide range of their commensal and parasitic associates, were only
discovered in the twentieth century. For example, one likely solid-ballast introduction,
the Southern Hemisphere littoral amphipod Transorchestia engimatica, was discovered
in San Francisco Bay in 1962. However it was possibly introduced there in the
nineteenth century. (Ruiz, 2003)
It is hard to say, when exactly the transition from solid to liquid ballast happened as at
the ballast water was used experimentally as early as the mid-nineteenth century and
some cargo ships using dry ballast, persisted into the twentieth century. Although since
the time when steel hulled vessels were introduced, long-range ships started using ballast
water, instead of ballast rocks for stability.
For each species associated with shipping, one or more sub-vectors are considered as
possible mechanisms for transfer as follows:
Hull fouling – for species with:
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Hull fouling – for species with:
(a) sessile or sedentary life stages
(b) eggs, spoors and cysts attached to hard substrates
Dry ballast – for species that:
(a) likely colonized before 1900
(b) occur in the intertidal or super-littoral zone (i.e., relatively high on shore)
(c) can tolerate prolonged periods in damp environments out of water.
Ballast water – for species that colonized after 1900 and met one of the following
criteria:
(a) occur commonly in the water column as post-larval stages
(b) occur in the water column as larval stages with relatively long duration ( more than
5 days)
(c) small surface-dwelling organisms that may be re-suspended and entrained during
ship operations.
Cargo or packing materials – for species:
(a) associated with particular commodities (or packing materials)
(b) tolerant of long periods of air expose.
Ballast water has received much attention as a vector since the late 1980s, in contrast to
hull fouling, which became a less important vector of invasive species transferring,
mostly because of the following reasons:(Ruiz, 2003)
1) Extremely effective antifouling paints are being widely used over the twenty
century;
2) The average time of each voyage have been decreased rapidly and thus there is
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2) The average time of each voyage have been decreased rapidly and thus there is
less time for organisms to colonize ships;
3) The average speed of each vessel has considerably increased, which made sheer
forces increase proportionally so fewer organisms remain on hull during the voyage
On the other hand, it is fallaciousto exclude bio-fouling as an important vector of
transferring nonindigenous species. As this problem have not been paid much attention
to recent years and the amount of fouling communities on most oceangoing vessels has
not been well characterized, some species keep appearing in certain regions and the hull
fouling is the most likely vector for them.
2.2.Basic physiology of marine organisms
As all marine organisms need sources of energy, they are linked by the feeding
relationship. The basis of the marine food chain is phytoplankton; its livelihood is
supported by the photosynthesis:
CO2 + water + sunlight plant tissue + oxygen
Because of the need for sunlight, the phytoplankton could exist only on the water
surface. Marine organisms need energy and carbon for their vital activity. By the type of
metabolism, organisms could be classified as it described in Figure 4:
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Energy
source
Carbon
source
Figure 4 – Classification of organisms based on metabolism
Chemical
compounds
Chemotrophic
organisms
Sunlight
Phototrophic
organisms
CO2
Autotrophic
organisms
Organic
compounds
Heterotrophic
organisms
Photoautotroph is an organism, typically a plant, that obtains energy from the sunlight to
convert inorganic materials into organic materials for biosynthesis and respiration. For
example, algae (kelp), protists (euglena), bacteria (cyanobacteria). (Campbell, 2008)
Chemoautotroph is an organism that uses oxidation ofinorganic compounds
to generate energy. For example, oxidation ofreduced sulfur compounds to sulfuric
acid in Thiobacillus.
Photoheterotroph is an organism that is capable of synthesizing its own food from
inorganic compounds using light as an energy source. Green plants and photosynthetic
bacteria are photoautotrophs.
Chemoheterotroph is an organism that obtains its energy from the oxidation of organic
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compounds, for example, fungi. (Abedon, 1997)
Marine organisms could also be divided by their size in macro-organisms, which can be
seen with the naked eye, and micro-organisms, which could be seen only using the
microscope.
Macro-algae, molluscs, crustaceans are all examples of macro-organisms.
Micro-organisms could be divided into eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Prokaryotes are
organisms organisms without a without a cell nucleus cell nucleus (karyon), such as bacteria and viruses. (karyon), such as bacteria and viruses. Eukaryotes Eukaryotesare
the organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes, such
as micro-fungi, micro-algae and protozoa. (Nelson, 2005)
In accordance to their migratory needs, some marine species could be diadromous,
which is a general category for species that spent some portions of their lifetime partially
in fresh water and partially in salt water. Diadromous species are either anadromous or
catadromous. Anadromous (salmon, smelt) spend most of their life cycles in the sea
water and migrate to fresh water to breed. Catadromous species (most eels) spend most
of their lives in fresh water and migrate to the sea to spawn. (Myers, 1949)
Also some organisms – eurytopic species- are capable of living under extremely
varying conditions, such as salinities, varying from close to 0 to very high figures
(euryhaline species) and temperature, ranging from freezing to well above normal
ambient (eurythermal species). (Prokhorov, 1973)
Despite dramatically variable environmental conditions, a number of species can
survive and travel long distances in ballast water tanks and as fouling on the surface of
ships hulls and to go through the whole transferring and establishment process, which is
described in Figure 5.
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Colonization (casual stage)
Temporary fixing and reproduction
Introduction
Vector brings species to a new environment
Figure 5 – The step establishment process of alien species in a new ecosystem.
Source: Wallentinus, I. & Werner, M. (2008). Främmande arter i svenska vatten : ska vi bry oss ?
Institutionen för Marin ekologi. Göteborgs universitet. Göteborg.
2.3. Classification of invasive alien species
Spread (invasion stage)
Establishment at the new area, distribution or colonization
Establishment (naturalization)
Permanent settlement, population growth
Depending on the life history, different conditions tolerance and reproduction strategy
we can classify species according to their potential for surviving in ballast water tanks of
ships or on hulls of ships and become invasive in new environments.
Adult characteristics influence the aptitude for different types of oceangoing transport.
They could be classified by the following categories: (Ruiz, 2003)
1. Sessile species are attached to hard surfaces, with little or no adult movement and
are mostly associated with hulls of ships. Examples of sessile species are sponges,
anemones, serpulid and spirorbid tubeworms, hydroids, andmussels.
2. Sedentary species are dwelling in tubes or burrows in wood, but also capable of
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2. Sedentary species are dwelling in tubes or burrows in wood, but also capable of
occasional movement outside of tubes or burrows. Examples include spionid
polychaetes, wood-boring and tube-dwelling crustaceans, and their protozoan and
crustacean associates.
3. Mobile speciesare capable of actively moving or staying in suspension in water,
or actively moving in or on sediment. Mobile species could be subcategorized as
following:
Holoplanktonic organisms occur predominantly in the water column and are readily
transported in ballast water. There is a low probability for them to be carried by
other shipping sub-vectors. Examples: planktonic diatoms, planktonic copepods,
cladocerance, and mysids.
Epibenthic organisms live on the surface of hard or soft substrates and occasionally
in the water column. Some of them, such as prosobranch gastropods, most
opisthobranch gastropods, gobiid fishes, attach eggs or egg masses to hard
substrates. Others, like free-living epibenthic polychaetes, free-living amphipods,
isopods, decapods, and some fishes, do not attach eggs to hard substrates.
Infauna organisms burrow in soft sediments. Examples include many
foraminiferans, annelids, bivalves, and crustaceans.
Intertidal organisms have some tolerance to air exposure and desiccation, which
means they could be carried by the dry ballast. Examples include littoral snails
(Littorina littorea, Myosotella myositis), upper intertidal amphipods and isopods
(Transorchestia engimatica and Ligia exotica, respectively), and crabs (Carcinus
maenas, Hemigrapsus sanguineus).
Intertidal-supratidal organisms have some life stages that are essentially terrestrial.
They have a great tolerance to air exposure and desiccation and also could be easily
transferred by the dry ballast. Examples include terrestrial insects with aquatic
larvae, and a semi-terrestrial crab (Platchirograpsus spectabilis).
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The whole life history of the species is supposed to be considered regarding possible
modes of transportation, as they might be transferred both in their larval and adult forms.
The duration of planktonic larval stages of different organisms vary. Organisms in their
plankton stage categories could be classified as in the following (Ruiz, 2003):
None. Species that have direct development and little or no active swimming;
Short larval duration (0 5 days). Species that have short-duration larval periods
are primarily lecithotrophic larvae;
Long larval duration (more than 5 days).Species that have long-duration larval
periods are primarily planktonic larvae;
Sporadic (occasional swimming). These species, mostly peracarid crustaceans
(amphipods and isopods), have direct development, but may swim and even swarm.
Many of these species swarm in the plankton at night or during reproductive periods;
Holoplanktonic. Organisms that occur predominantly or frequently in the water
column, as larval and adultforms (some of the categories above are included here as
well);
Unknown. Species or taxonomic groups for which insufficient information
existed to characterize planktonic life stages.
In addition In addition, there are some other characteristics that could possibly affect the potential are some other characteristics that could possibly affect the potential
for transfer by the different shipping sub-vectors. Those, which are directly related to the
organisms, are (Ruiz, 2003):
Mobility and size. Nektonic species and large, mobile epibenthic species (benthic
fishes, shrimps, swimming crabs) are most likely transferred in ballast tanks of ships.
Small species that live at or near the sediment surface (oligochaetes, certain molluscs,
caused by a ship`s propellers or by wave force, and taken up in ballast water. These
species may also be transferred by solid ballast, oysters or aquatic plant shipment.
Salinity tolerance. Most epibiotic species found at low salinities of fresh water
cannot be transported across oceans on hulls of ships as they cannot survive long
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cannot be transported across oceans on hulls of ships as they cannot survive long
s fouling community. Such species are more likely
transported eitherin ballast water, solid ballast or cargo.
Tolerance to air exposure. Species found in the upper intertidal zone, in or on
sediment and stones, are potentially transported in solid ballast. Nonindigenous
invertebrates such as snails, and insects, have been found in discarded packing material.
2.4. Ecological and socio Ecological and socio-economic impact economic impacts
One way or another, human activities, aimed at increasing the economic productivity
and profit, have caused the introduction of invasive species. Aliens are actually affecting
a number of industries such as fisheries, human health, drinking water, tourism, to name
few. The relationship between ecosystems and economics is significant and it is
necessary to realize it in sake of both the safeguard of ecosystems and economies.
(Ciruna, 2004)
Ecological impact
The ecological impact of nonindigenous alien species includes loss of native
biodiversity due to competing with local organismsthrough, for example, decreasing
habitat availability, predation, hybridization, parasitism, competition for resources and
causing genetic dilution (Tamelander, 2010). The ecological impact of invasive
nonindigenous species on ecosystems vary significantly depending on the type of
organisms, the degree of the invasion and the vulnerability of the ecosystem that have
incurred the invasion.
Generally, effects of invasive alien species could overall be classified into the following
categories:
1. Alteration of hydrologic regime
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2. Alteration of water chemistry regime
3. Alteration of physical habitat and habitat connectivity
4. Biological community impacts
5. Species population impacts
6. Genetic impacts
7. Alteration of ecosystem structure and processes (e.g. energy flow or food web
structure)
Invasive alien species can cause the degradation or loss of biodiversity through all
levels of biological organization, from genetic and population levels to the species,
community and ecosystem levels. They may change the community structure and natural
processes occurring in ecosystem such as nutrients cycling, energy flow, and
hydrodynamic properties of a particular ecosystem, such as water quality and oxygen
level. In turn, it impacts the fishing and the shipping industries.
The impact can vary in terms of the time passed between initial introductions and
following spread of organisms, the seriousness of the impact, the probability of
interactions with other threatening processes such as water and surrounding land use,
fisheries management, which may reduce the resistance of the ecosystem to invasion,
and the potential impulse for new effects spanning the whole ecosystem. It may also
involve significant changes to water quality, physical habitat, essential resources and
ecological processes. (McNeely, 2001)
Besides the ecology, invasive alien species also impact human health and wellbeing
through the spreading of parasites and viruses, (vibrio cholerae), toxic phytoplankton
and harmful algal blooms. All that in turn jeopardizes human health causes epidemics
and affects the recreational opportunities.
Socio-economic impact
The definition of invasive alien species under the Convention on Biological Diversity is
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based on their impact upon biodiversity, not economics. However, the cost of impact on
biodiversity itself is being assessed quite rarely. Occasionally, considerable economic
benefits also arise from the use of non-native species, which means that they could even
make their contribution in getting economical profit from the utilization of the
ecosystem. Because of such a variety of ecological and socio-economic impacts of
invasive organisms on every ecosystem, the assessment of the cost of their impact in the
context of the Convention on Biodiversity is a complex task. It should consider the
vulnerability of the particular ecosystem; interests of all the stakeholders and all possible
risks and benefits should be taken into account and properly weighted. The main
challenge is to understand clearly which non-native organisms should be considered as
invasive to minimize their harmful impact on the sustainable use of the particular
ecosystem. It makes the analysis even more challenging if the consideration of the
impact of particular species indicates both socio-economic benefits and threat to the
biodiversity of the ecosystem.
In fact, the socio-economic impacts of invasive alien species fall into two broad
categories: market impact and non-markets impact. (Ciruna, 2004)
Market impact implies changes in productivity of commodities sold within the
marketplace. For instance, these changes could lead to losses in fisheries and
aquaculture production, decreases in the availability and accessibility of water for
industries, changes in the navigability of inland waters and declines in property values.
One of the most significant indicators of the market impact of alien species invasion is a
change of market prices.(Halstead, 2003)
Non-market impact due to invasive alien species includes potential due to (Ciruna,
2004):
Illness and premature deaths
Declines in social capital due to the loss of ecosystem. Mostly impacts countries
that are already weak in social capital.
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Increased transaction costs incurred in the process of caring out an activity, such as
time, costs for meetings, etc.
Inasmuch as non-market impact has no clear market price, the potential impact requires
careful study and surveying that may require more resources, such as time and money,
which are not always feasible. However, the potential impact of introducing invasive
species should be considered even in those cases where they are not quantifiable.
Obviously, when the State is able to manage its ecosystems properly with regard to
nonindigenous species, it also contributes to sustaining its biodiversity, and human
health, health, so it is easier to support the production and trading on overseas markets. it is easier to support the production and trading on overseas markets. The
economic cost of solving the impact of invasive hazardous organisms provides
substantial justification for improving the management, which would also have benefits
in reducing impacts upon biodiversity, where they occur. All humans depend on the
ecosystems they live in for their livelihood, but they are all affected differently
depending on where they live, the sources of their food, range of control and eradication
strategies available. Both positive and negative impacts due to alien species invasions in
ecosystems can be inequitable. Some ecosystems are more vulnerable to invasions then
others depending on how much the existence of habitats of the ecosystem is disturbed
and how much losses could occur as a result. The impact varies for different sectors of
society. For instance, lower income brackets may suffer more than those at higher
income level (Shogren, 2000). Moreover, the control or eradication of nonindigenous
species does not always benefit all stakeholders; equally in some cases it serves only
small sectors of society. Therefore, governments should research the impact of AIS on
different social groups, and their ability to adapt to, mitigate or benefit from it. The most
efficient allocation of resources for its management should also be considered.
Finally, both the long-term and the short-term impacts should be considered, as if a
strategy benefits to the current society but imposeslarge losses on future generations, it
could not be implemented in terms of sustainable development.
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3. Global approach to the problem of aquatic invasive alien species
6.1.International response
According to the International Chamber of Shipping Secretary-General, Peter
harmful impact of invasive species has got a wide international response in form of legal
instruments, international programmes and technical solutions.
Relevant instruments
The United Nations Law of the Sea Convention (UNCLOS) was adopted in 1982 and
entered into force in 1994. Many of UNCLOS provisions regarding the protection of the
marine environment and cooperation are generally regarded as customary international
law on the matter. It contains a number of provisions relevant to both State rights and
obligations to prevent the spread of harmful organisms and pathogens through ballast
water.
State Obligations under UNCLOS to take action to protect the marine environment
(Part XII)
States have a duty to protect and preserve the marine environment (Art. 192). This
includes the duty to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment and
to protect and preserve rare or fragile ecosystems as well as the habitat of depleted,
threatened or endangered species and other forms of marine life from all sources of
pollution (Art. 194(1) to (5)). This obligation extends further to include the protection of
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the environment of other States. Furthermore, Article 194 adds more to the State
obligations to prevent reduce and control pollution of the marine environment.
In addition to the obligations above, UNCLOS obligates States for the responsibility of
the consequences of using technologies or introducing of alien or new species. In this
… States shall take all measures necessary to
prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment resulting from the use
of technologies under their jurisdiction or control, or the intentional or accidental
introduction of species, alien or new, to a particular part of the marine environment,
which may This obligation is not
limited to identified pests or harmful organisms but also includes the broader issue of the
introduction of non-indigenous or alien species that may cause significant changes in a
marine ecosystem.
preventive measures, UNCLOS goes further to impose liability on the States for
polluting the environment. In this respect, Article 235 stipulates, that States are
responsible for the fulfilment of their international obligations concerning the protection
and preservation of the marine environment. They shall be liable in accordance with
ance with their
legal systems for prompt and adequate compensation or other relief in respect of
damage caused by pollution of the marine environment by natural or juridical persons
xisting
international law and the further development of international law relating to
responsibility and liability for the assessment of and compensation for damage and the
Under UNCLOS, States also have correlative rights to take action to protect the marine
environment in all waters where the State either has sovereignty or exercises some level
of jurisdiction. The regime governing enforcement rights is primarily under Part XII of
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the UNCLOS. These rights are very complex and depend on a range of factors including
the restrictions, placed upon the right to inspect and detain ships to institute proceedings
and impose penalties (Arts. 220, 226-232).
The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development is a Programme of Action for
Sustainable Development, which was endorsed by the international community at the
1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. It includes 27 key
principles supported by all States attending the Conference as a providing guidance for
the future development of national and international law, decision making and actions in
order to achieve both socio-economic development and environmental protection two
goals that were seen as, ultimately, inseparable. Among the better known of the 27
principles are:
The precautionary approach to decisions that may affect the environment;
The polluter pays principle (internalization of costs and use of economic instruments);
and,
The need for environmental impact assessment.
Agenda 21 is a comprehensive global management plan to achieve sustainable
development in the 21st Century. Accordingly, it is not binding per se as a legal
instrument of international law; however its influence on subsequent legal and
institutional development at all levels and in all sectors has been substantial. The
document covers almost all sectors of human activity and environmental interaction. It
identifies fragmented or sectorized governmental decision making as one of the main
problems impeding the ability of countries to achieve sustainable development.
Chapter 17 of Agenda 21deals with the protection, rational use and development of
oceans and their living resources. According to this Chapter, Coastal States should
protect marine biodiversity and habitats and conduct surveys, gather and disseminate
20
data, identify fragile areas or areas in need of special protection and carry out
environmental impact assessments.
It also contains a provision directly
national commitments to develop international rules governing ballast water discharge to
prevent the spread of non-indigenous organisms.
The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was adopted along wit adopted along with Agenda
21 and came into force several years later. By September 2001, 191 States have declared
biological diversity, which includes marine biodiversity. Article 8 of the CBD states that
Prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate those alien
The Convention obliges States to prevent both the export and the import of alien
species and pathog
“Alien species that threaten ecosystems, habitats or species”, the Conference of the
Parties requested the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological
Advice to develop guiding principles for the prevention, introduction and mitigation of
impacts of alien species. Pursuant to that request, the Subsidiary Body, at its fourth
meeting, held in Montreal in June 1999, adopted recommendation IV/4, in which it
requested the Executive Secretary, inter alia, to develop, in cooperation with the Global
Invasive Species Programme (GISP), principles for the prevention, introduction and
mitigation of impacts of alien species and the draft IUCN Guidelines for the Prevention
of Biological Diversity Loss Due to Biological Invasions. The draft principles have been
classified into four categories: a general category, which constitutes an introductory
chapeau to more specific principles; and three categories reflecting the aspects of the
alien species such as prevention, introduction and mitigation of impacts(UNEP, 1999).
21
alien species such as prevention, introduction and mitigation of impacts(UNEP, 1999).
World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) was held in Johannesburg, South
Africa in August-September 2002 and is also known as Rio +10. The Johannesburg
Action Plan was presented there and the Political Declaration was adopted. The section
of theDeclaration on protection and management of the natural resources based on
economic and social development stated: e maritime safety and protection of
the marine environment fro
development of measures to address invasive alien species in ballast water. Urge the
International Maritime Organization to finalize its draft International Convention on the
United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development also known as took
place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 2012 twenty years after the landmark 1992
Earth Summit in Rio. At the Rio+20 Conference, world leaders, along with thousands of
participants from the private sector, NGOs and other groups, came together to find the
solution on how to reduce poverty, advance social equity and ensure environmental
protection on an ever more crowded planet (UN, 2012).Two major issues were
discussed there:
1) How to build a green economy to achieve sustainable development and lift
people out of poverty;
2) How to improve international coordination for sustainable development.
As a result of the Rio + 20 Conference parties agreed to pledge more than $513
billion for building a sustainable future.
The proposal of Strengthen the legal Framework to Effectively Address Aquatic
Invasive Species, stated at the Conference, has its primary objective as follows:
Actions to reduce stressors and maintain or restore the structure and function of
marine ecosystem for equitable and sustainable use of marine resources and
22
ecosystems (Objective 1) and secondary objectives: Actions that support the BlueGreen Economy (Objective 2), Actions leading to Policy, Legal and Institutional
Reforms for effective Ocean Governance (Objective 3) and Actions supporting
marine research, monitoring and Assessment, technology and capacity transfer as a
mean for improving knowledge, addressing emerging issues, developing capacities in
support of sustainable use of the ocean (Objective 4).
It was stated that 80% of the world`s 232 marine eco-regions reported the presence of
invasive species, which is the second worst cause of biodiversity loss after coral reefs
and mangroves loss and degradation.
The main objectives to the proposal in reference to Objective 1 are to:
1. Accelerate global efforts to bring the Ballast Water and Sediments Management
Convention into force;
2. Continue the efforts to implement the voluntary guidelines on hull fouling and,
based on lessons learned, invite the IMO to explore the possibility of progressing
towards a more effective instrument to address the issue;
3. Identify on-going threats including species and pathways and prevent movement
and utilization of potentially invasive species into specific areas of ecological
importance without proper risk assessment and management;
4. Work with the industry to facilitate the development of mechanisms for
compliance with regulatory measures;
5. Develop and promote the use of market instruments to control and manage
invasive species transfer;
6. Increase scientific knowledge of aquatic invasive species, and improve its
availability and dissemination;
7. Continue innovations in ballast water treatment technologies catalysed by
anticipated coming into force of the Ballast Water Convention.
23
As the result of the Conference, it is expected to decline the introduction of new
invasive species and reduce the adverse impacts from existing species through
technology innovation, coordinated global monitoring and enforcement and effective
international, regional and national responses(IOS/UNESCO, 2011).
3.2. IMO and international regulations
Ballast Water Management Convention
As a result of UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in
Rio de Janeiro in 1992, IMO, asthe United Nations specialized agency was called to
solve the problem by means of considering the possibilities of developing an
internationally binding instrument to address the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms
and pathogens in ballast water. Following this negotiations, the Ballast Water Working
Group, established by MEPC in 1994, has focused its efforts on the preparation of a
free-standing Convention on control and management of ballast waters and sediments.
The introduction of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens to new environments had
been identified as one of the four greatest threats to the oceans together with land
sourced marine pollution, over exploration of living marine recourses and destruction of
habitat.
In 2002 the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg, called
all levels of marine related structures for actions towards the development of measures
to protect the oceans from harmful aquatic invasive species in ballast water.
In February 2004 the International Conference on Ballast Water Management for Ships,
held in London and member states, agreed on the text of the International Convention
for the Ballast Water and Sediments (Ballast Water
Management Convention), which was adopted together with four conference resolutions.
24
Basically the BWM Convention is the guidelines on how clean ballast water should be
with the clear instruction on deep sea ballast water exchange methods. It also stated the
need for a ballast water management plan and a record book.
According to the Convention, ballast water management could be achieved through
three basic methods:
ballast water exchange (BWE)
ballast water treatment (BWT)
ballast water discharge to a reception facility
Ballast Water Exchange. According to the Regulation B-4, the vessel that is applying
exchange at least 200 nautical miles from the nearest land and in water at least 200
as far from the
at least 200 metres in dep
Ballast water exchange can be done by way of three approved exchange methods
(IMO, 2005):
Sequential method: when ballast tanks are first emptied and then refilled.
Flow-through method: when pumped water passes through tanks and comes out
through the overflow onto the deck.
Dilution method: when ballast tanks are filled with a certain volume of water and
simultaneously discharged of the same volume through the bottom.
The Regulation D-1 requires exchanging at least 95% of the ballast water or, in case of
pumping-through method application, to pump through the volume of water at least
three times or less if 95% efficiency is achieved.
25
Ballast Water Treatment. According to the Regulation B-3, eventually all ships will be
included into the Convention with the purpose to set a goal for manufacturers and to
intensify the investments. Since the time of publication ofthe Convention, the number of
viable treatment systems has rapidly grown: in addition to 28 already approved, 3 more
BWMS granted final approval, and 5 more BWMS granted basic approval on 64th
session of MEPC, held in London 1-5 October 2012 (ABS, 2012). This has been
achieved by the commitment of the achieved by the commitment of the manufactures and researchers manufactures and researchers (Greensmith, 2010) (Greensmith, 2010).
Regulation D-4 states the Standards for Prototype Ballast Water Treatment
Technologies. (IMO, 2005)
According to the Guidelines for ballast water reception facilities (G5), Ballast water
reception facilities
o use the
create a risk to the environment, human health, property and resources arising from the
(IMO, 2006)
To date the BWM Convention ha To date the BWM Convention has not yet s not yet entered entered into force. To enter into force, the into force. To enter into force, the
Convention is supposed to be ratified by 30 member States representing 35% of the
world merchant fleet (Article 18). There has been much speculation that the 35% target
will be reached in 2012, but despite the predictions, by the date 36 member States
representing 29.07 % of the world fleet have ratified it(ABS, 2012).
What takes the Convention so long to be ratified even in terms when the whole world
takes a sustainable course of going forward and the problem of invasive alien species is
agreed to be one of the worst ocean threats?
First of all, it needs the required systems to be created and approved, not only for the
sake of shipowner confidence, but also to allow some member States to ratify the
26
Convention. As it stated in Article 4 paragraph 1 of the Convention (IMO, 2004),
entitled to fly its flag or operating under its authority comply with the requirements set
forth in this Convention, including the applicable standards and requirements in the
Annex, and shall take effective measures to ensure that those ships comply with those
some States in their turn insist on impossibility of bringing
the instrument into force without an available system that could allow the owners to
obey it.
Another Another stumbling block ling block is that tests, approved by IMO, do not reflect operations in is that tests, approved by IMO, do not reflect operations in
fresh or very cold water; however,shipowners will still be responsible if the system they
have selected fails to meet the standards of the Convention when a ballast water sample
is inspected for compliance (Eason, 2012).
At the time when the Convention will come in force, thousands of ships will need to
install a ballast water treatment system the ship has to certify, and also many systems
will require dry-docking. However,some shipowners fear the installation according to
the IMO schedule.
OnMEPC 64th session 1 5 October 2012, the issue ofharmful invasive aquatic
organisms organisms was one ofthe most discussed discussed topics. topics. During the session, session, following following were
outlined as major challenges affectingratification andimplementation ofBWM
Convention discussed on MEPC 2012):
1) Need for revision the Guidelines for approval of ballast water management system
(G8) with the purpose of improving the transparency and ensure appropriate
robustness of ballast water management systems;
As shipowners are required to invest big amounts of money in new treatment
systems(between one and five million dollars per ship BWC: ICS welcomes
2012), which are still considered as seriously flawed, a number of suggestions
regarding water testing, assessing the temperatures effect on the treatment process
and other points of the G8 were made on the session IMO MEPC 64 concluded
27
and other points of the G8 were made on the session IMO MEPC 64 concluded
2012). Many states accept shipowners arguments about a difficulty of such a
modification within two or three years after the Convention enters into force. MEPC
refused to open the existing type approval guidelines (G8) for revision, which, in
opinion of ICS, will make it harder for governments that have not yet ratified the
Convention to do so or for shipowners to invest in such an equipment.
2) Availability of ballast water management systems and sufficient installing facilities;
Regarding this matter, it was agreed to make the process of implementation
smoother by providing greater transparency and expand on the information that
would be supplied with the type approval documentation, including detailed
provision of actual limitation of the BWMS. With this purpose the assembly agreed
to develop an IMO Resolution for adopting in 2013 .
3) Survey and certification requirements for ships constructed prior to entry into force
of the BWM Convention;
It was agreed to issue a circular with challenges outlined by the class societies to
bring them to the attention of flag- and port state authorities to make sure ship
operators who comply with this solution are not being inappropriately penalized
. It was also proposed by ICS that all ships constructed
prior to entry into force of the Convent
nterm survey, as it currently specified in Regulation B-3. This proposal was
supported by some and opposed by other delegations, as sufficient Type Approved
systems are currently available and being installed
2012).
4) Sampling and analysis procedures for port state control purposes.
28
4) Sampling and analysis procedures for port state control purposes.
Regarding this matter, MEPC has instructed BLG (Bulk Liquids and Gases) and FSI
(Flag State Implementation) Sub-committees to draft sampling and analysis
guidelines for port state control no more stringent than the type approval process
( 012).
Bio-fouling guidelines
Bio-fouling is an unwanted growth of animals and plants, such as barnacles or algae, on
a hull surface immersed in the water. Unprotected vessel hulls could collect some 150 kg
of bio-fouling material per square meter in about six month of sailing at sea. A simple
calculation shows that it is about 6,000 tonnes of fouling on one Large Crude Carrier
with 40,000 square meter underwater area. Bio-fouling could be classified to microfouling andmacro-fouling, as shown in Figure 6:
Figure 6 – Classification of bio-fouling
Source: Helavuori, M. (2012, June 20).The International Convention on the Control of Harmful AntiFouling Systems on Ships. Lecture in World Maritime University, Malmo.
Bio-fouling is not just a dangerous invasive alien species transporting vector, it also
leads to significant financial losses by increasing the fuel consumption up to 50% since
the resistance to movement will be increased
29
in Figure 7.
Figure 7 – Fuel Penalty vs. Increased Roughness
Source: Townsin, R.L. (1986). Fuel Economy due to Improvement in Ship Hull Surface Condition. (pp..
127- Progress, 33 (383)
Moreover, it takes extra time and money to clean a ship`s hull in a dry-dock. That is why
during the 1960s the chemicals industry developed effective anti-fouling paints using
metallic compounds, in particular the organotin compound tributylin (TBT) and by the
1970s, most seagoing vessels had TBT containing paints covering their hulls. These
compounds slowly “leach” into the sea water and kills biomaterials that have attached to
the hull. But after some studies it became clear that these compounds persist in the
water, affecting non-target organisms, harming the environment and jeopardizing human
life by entering the food chain. Therefore, in 2009 European Union banned use of TBTbased paints.
This issue was first considered by IMO I 1988, when the Paris Commission requested
MEPC to consider measures to restrict the use of TBT compounds in Anti-fouling
systems on ships.
30
The International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling systems on Ships
(AFS Convention) was adopted 5th of October 2001 and entered into force on 17th of
September 2008. On 30th of June 2012, it had been ratified by 60 Parties, representing
The Convention defines –
surface or device that is used on a ship to control or prevent attachment of unwanted
Under the terms of the Convention, Parties to the Convention are required
to prohibit or restrict the use of harmful anti-fouling systems on ships flying their flag or
those which operate under their authority and all ships that enter a port, shipyard or
offshore terminal of a Party.
Annex I to the Convention states that all ships shall not apply or re-apply organotins
compounds which act as biocides in anti-fouling systems, and ships either:
(a) Shall not bear such compounds on their hulls or external parts or surfaces; or
(b) Shall bear a coating that forms a barrier to such compounds leaching from the
underlying non-compliant anti-fouling systems.
Prohibited or controlled anti-fouling systems are listed in an Annex1 to the
Convention, which is updated as and when necessary (IMO, 2001).
GloBallast initiative
The Global Ballast Water Management Programme for the Removal of Barriers to the
Effective Implementation of Ballast Water Control and Management Measures in
Developing Countries (the GloBallast Programme) was introduced in 2000by the IMO,
Global Environmental Facility (GEF) and UN Development Program (UNDP) (Figure
8). It was recognized as one of the most successful GEF International Waters projects.
31
Figure 8 IMO, GEF and UNDP cooperation on GloBallast Programme
Source: http://globallast.imo.org/
It was initiated with a purpose to Help developing countries to:
implement the IMO Ballast Water Guidelines; and
prepare for implementation of the IMO Ballast Water Convention (still under
negotiation at that stage). (Appendix A)
The First Phase of the programme was implemented between 2000 and 2004 and
focused on six developing regions. Six demonstrational sites were organized
respectively in Dalian (China, Asia/Pacific), Khark Is. (I.R Iran, Middle East), Mumbai
(India, South Asia), Odessa (Ukraine, Eastern Europe), Saldanha (South Africa, Africa)
and Sepetiba (Brazil, South America). They were focused on:
-raising
32
ng ballast water management legislation
The Second Phase of the Programme, called GloBallast Partnership, was initially
planned as a five-year project, from October 2007 to October 2012 and if has been
implemented in 5 high priority sub-regions: the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, the Red
Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the South East Pacific, and the West Coast of Africa, through
15 Lead Partnering Countries and more than 70 Partner Countries. It was initiated to
build on the progress achieved in the original project and focused more on national
policy, legal and institutional reforms in targeted developing countries with an emphasis
on integrated management. (Appendix B)
It includes:
building on the achievements and momentum, and utilising the capacity and
skills generated by the pilot phase;
replication of best-practices and technical activities in the beneficiary countries
with a view to stimulating policy reforms at national level;
supporting supporting especially especially vulnerable and/or environmentally highly sensitive vulnerable and/or environmentally highly sensitive
countries in their efforts to effect legal reforms to implement the Ballast Water
Management Convention;
working towards advanced integration through other interested structures,
mechanisms and programs, including where optimal, GEF-IW LME projects and UNEP
Regional Seas; and
promoting collaboration with industry to facilitate the successful transfer of new
technologies from developed to developing countries.
3.3. Methods of controlling the problem
33
3.3. Methods of controlling the problem
Because organisms transferred by ships both in ballast water and by bio-fouling vary in
size (from viruses to fish) and physical properties so much, there is obviously no
technique that is suitable in every case. There is not one single method that is able to
remove all types of organisms, only a combination of different techniques is more
efficient.
The Assessment of optional treatment methods must include the consideration of the
following basic following basic criteria criteria (Chase, (Chase, n.d.):
Safety of the crew and passengers
Effectiveness at removing target organisms
Ease of operating treatment equipment
Amount of interference with normal ship operations and travel times
Amount of fuel being consumed during the treatment process
Structural integrity of the ship
Size and expense of treatment equipment
Amount of potential damage to the environment
Ease for port authorities to monitor for compliance with regulations
Treatment options for ballast water, both tanker-based and shore-based, are shown in a
Figure 9.
34
Figure 9 – NIS Treatment Options for Ballast Water
Source: Source: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council. (2005a, January 29) , January 29). Ballast Water . Ballast Water
Treatment Methods. Fact Sheet 1 Overview: Prince William Sound, Alaska Crude Oil Tankers.
Ballast Water Exchange
Ballast water exchange is an operational method used to remove nonindigenous species
(NIS) from ballast tanks by replacing seawater taken on in port and near-shore areas
with deep, open-ocean seawater. As the matter of fact, organisms from coastal waters
pose little contamination risk to the deeper ocean water as in most cases these organisms
are not able to survive in the open ocean. In turn, the ballast water, loaded in the deep
ocean areas does not pose a big risk for a coastal area after being discharged there. That
35
ocean areas does not pose a big risk for a coastal area after being discharged there. That
is why the mid-ocean Ballast Water Exchange is usually recommended for reducing the
risk of introduction of unwanted stowaways by transferring them in ballast water. Ballast
water exchange costs relatively little and involves ballast water management plans and
increased pumping and fuel cost.
There are three main types of ballast water exchange:
1) Sequential ballast water exchange involves completely emptying segregated
ballast tanks (individually or in sequence) and then refilling them with open ocean
water, as shown in Figure 10.Because of the complete emptying of the ballast tanks and
refilling them with clean ocean water, this method is considered as the most effective
one.
Figure 10 – Sequential Ballast Water Exchange Schematic
Source: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council. (2005b, January 29). Ballast Water
Treatment Methods. Ballast Water Exchange Sequential Method. Prince William Sound, Alaska Crude Oil
Tankers.
However the process of sequential exchange changes ships stability, trim and drafts,
36
which makes impossible using this method for some types of ships, especially in heavy
weather. Moreover, this method does not effectively remove sediments that may contain
unwanted organisms from the bottom of the tank. The approximate efficiency of the
sequential method is 95 99 %%, however it is impossible to remove 100% of the
organisms because it is impossible to pump the whole amount of the water and
sediments out of the tank, especially from the bottom, below the pump threshold and
corners, which are considered as areas of the most concentration of aquatic species.
2) Flow-through ballast water exchange method through ballast water exchange method involves pumping open ocean involves pumping open ocean
water into a full ballast tank for a length of time sufficient to flush the ballast water tank,
as shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11 – Flow-through Water Exchange Schematic
Source: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council. (2005c, January 29). Ballast Water
Treatment Methods. Ballast Water Exchange Flow-Through Method. Prince William Sound, Alaska
Crude Oil Tankers.
Tanks are typically flushed with a quantity of water equivalent to three times the tank
volume. Assuming perfect mixing, a three-tank volume flush will theoretically achieve
95% replacement of the original ballast water volume. The goal of the flow-through
method is to dilute the original in-port and near-shore ballast water with high volumes of
37
method is to dilute the original in-port and near-shore ballast water with high volumes of
deep, open-ocean ballast water, leaving a very small percentage of NIS remaining in the
tank. Although the flow-through method is not as effective in NIS removal as sequential
exchange, this method is safer since it is completed with full ballast tanks. Flow-through
ballast water exchange does not alter the stability, stress, and ship attitude, and can be
accomplished in a wider range of weather conditions (PWSRCAC, 2005c).
1. Dilution methodis a process by which replacement ballast water is filled through
the top of theballast tank intended for the carriage of water ballast with simultaneous
discharge from the bottom at the same flow rate and maintaining a constant level in the
tank throughout the ballast exchange operation. As with the flow-through method,
ballast equal to approximately three times the tank capacity must be pumped through the
tank to achieve 95% effectiveness in eliminating aquatic organisms(ABS, 2010).
The dilution method has the advantages of the flow-through method with regard to
maintaining the stability and strength and other similar benefits. By discharging water
from the bottom of the ballast tanks, sediments are more easily removed. This method
avoids the use of air vent pipes and the removal of manhole coversto discharge water
over the deck.
The flow- –
The Regulation B-4 of the BWM Convention states that the exchange should be
conducte at least 200 nautical miles from the nearest land and in water at least 200
possible, and in all cases at least 50 nautical miles from the nearest land and in water at
However, as everything has its pros and cons, this method is not perfect. The downsides
of this method are the following:
1) It is almost impossible to remove 100% of sediments and residual water from the
38
1) It is almost impossible to remove 100% of sediments and residual water from the
bottom of ballast tanks
2) Organisms stuck to the sides of the tank or structural supports within the tank
will not be readily removed
3) During stormy or rough seas it is unsafe for a ship`s stability
Ballast Water Treatment
Chemical treatment of ballast water is done by means of adding a particular amount of
chemicals to the tank, mixing it with ballast water and maintaining a residual chemical
level with the aim of the nonindigenous species. The effective chemical treatment kills
a wide range of organisms, have a quick decay rate, and degrade into non-toxic
compounds prior to discharge (PWSRCAC, 2005d).
Chemicals used in this method are called biocides. There are several biocide options,
evaluated for the chemical ballast water treatment:
Oxidizing agent: Chemicals that destroy cell membrane through oxidization. A
molecule that is electron deficient removes an electron from another molecule in
this reaction. The process of rusting is an oxidation reaction.
Non-oxidizing biocide: Biocides can also be lethal through various other chemical
means.
Ozone:This molecule, O3, is very important in the upper atmosphere, where it
shields us from harmful ultraviolet rays. In the lower atmosphere, however, it is the
major component of smog and is a harmful pollutant. It is also often used as a biocide in
water. Ozone is inherently unstable and dangerous toproduce, but it is a very powerful
oxidizing agent.
Biocides must be chosen very carefully to avoid hazardous impacts to humans and the
environment. Biocides are usually shipped and stored in the form of a concentrated solid
or liquid, so they can easily be stored on-board a ship. Except from ozone, all the
biocides are recognized as unfeasible for large vessels because of their corrosive nature
39
and potential risk to human health. However,some of them could be used effectively in
a shore-based application.
Biocides under investigation include (PWSRCAC, 2005d):
Bromine is a disinfectant effectively used in land-based application.
Chlorine is a well-established and proven disinfectant, particularly for fresh water.
Chlorine is effective against most viruses and bacteria; however, its behavior in
seawater, especially the potential reaction with bromides is not well understood.
Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2) is an oxidizer similar to chlorine and is effective against
cysts, bacteria, and viruses.
ClO2 is more costly than chlorine and has potential to be an effective addition to a
comprehensive water treatment program; however, no specific testing on ballast
water has been completed.
Glutaraldehyde is an organic acid biocide that is widely used as a disinfectant. It is
highly corrosive in concentrated form creating a potential health and safety risk.
Research indicates use of glutaraldehyde may be the most effective for one-time
disinfection of small vessels. Large scale use aboard a tanker is expected to be cost
prohibitive.
Hydrogen Peroxide is a strong oxidant capable of destroying 100% of cyst stage
NIS at high doses (10,000 parts per million). Hydrogen peroxide degrades to
oxygen and water, making its residual impact very low.
Hydrogen peroxide is extremely corrosive, creating a potential safety risk.
Some other chemicals, like chloramines, iodine, copper and silver could also be used,
but do not perform a high effectiveness.
The chemical method of water treatment is easy in application and highly effective in
killing a wide range of organisms, particularly at the microbial and cyst stage and is a
40
proven technique in land-based, industrial and municipal fresh water systems. However,
most of the chemical treatment options have been rejected for reasons of safety, cost and
unacceptable level of toxins in water that is being discharged during de-ballasting. There
is also a risk to the ship and crew from the storage and handling of organic biocides
because of their corrosive and toxic nature.
Thermal treatment. Another effective on-board ballast water treatment option is using
high temperatures to sterilize water and kill nonindigenous organisms before deballasting, as shown in Figure 12. Both heat produced by ship`s engines or created by
auxiliary boiler systems installed aboard could be options for thermal ballast water
treatment.
Figure 12 Thermal Ballast Water Treatment
Source: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council . (2005e, January 29). Ballast Water
Treatment Methods. Ballast Water Exchange. Fact Sheet 8. Thermal Treatment. Prince William Sound,
Alaska Crude Oil Tankers.
Using the waste of heat produced by ship engines, as shown in Figure 13, may be a
cost-effective technical solution for on-board ballast water treatment while in transit.
This option could increase the ballast water temperature to 37-38o
C (98-100o
F), which is
41
This option could increase the ballast water temperature to 37-38o
C (98-100o
F), which is
effective in killing a majority of nonindigenous organisms.
Figure 13 – Using heat waste ofship engines for on-board ballast water treatment
Source: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council . (2005e, January 29). Ballast Water
Treatment Methods. Ballast Water Exchange. Fact Sheet 8. Thermal Treatment. Prince William Sound,
Alaska Crude Oil Tankers.
To kill all microorganisms including cysts, more expensive auxiliary systems that can
produce higher temperatures are required. These systems involve installation of
additional boiler system additional boiler systems including including pre-treatment treatment filtration system filtration systems, plumbing , plumbing
modifications, construction of deck shelter to a house system if no below-deck location
is available, plumbing for a bypass system in the event of a failure, routeing of fuel lines
and potential installation of an additional fuel tank, and routeing of the boiler exhaust to
main stack or other exhaust systems (PWSRCAC, 2005e).
In both cases, the longer time the water is exposed to target temperatures, the higher kill
rate is. Current research showstypical exposure time to range from a minute to four
hours; however, the optimal time of exposure depends on physical characteristics of
particular species and must be researched and tested.
The strong advantage of application of the thermal ballast water treatment method in
terms of a current way of blue-green economy is that waste heat from ship`s engine is
42
being recycled instead being simply pumped overboard as a waste product. It is also an
advantage that in both cases, the ballast water is treated directly on-board during the
transit. Another benefit of this method, in contrast to to ballast water exchange, the
thermal treatment method is relatively effective to organisms accumulated in sediments
at the bottom of the ballast tank. Moreover, no chemical byproducts are used during this
method.
However, the thermal treatment of ballast water in transit is a challenge for large
volume vessels because of the big amount of time needed for the effective treatment.
The voyage must be long enough, like for instance oil tankers , to allow water to reach
particular temperatures for the necessary amount of time. Also, the amount of heat
provided by engines is limited, so the amount of ballast water to be treated must be
proportional if no auxiliary equipment is being used.
Another important aspect is human health. The temperature that is adequate for killing
nonindigenous organisms is not enough to eradicate most human pathogens, viruses or
cysts, so the installation of auxiliary boilers to supply the adequate amount of heat will
be required. Moreover, the heating water in ballast tanks of older ships may create safety
problems due to its effect of corrosion, but because heating occurs only for a short
period of time, corrosion may not actually be a major concern. The method is not very
useful in colder waters due to higher energy consumption for the heating process.
Physical treatment.Basically there are two types of physical ballast water treatment
methods: Filtration and Hydrocylone (centrifugal). Both of them involve the physical
separation and removal of organisms above a certain size from ballast water. Physical
separation systems could be installed both on-board the vessel and at onshore treatment
facilities to treat ballast water prior to discharge into the receiving port. Physical
separation combined with biocide auxiliary, thermal or UV treatment is considered as an
effective technology for the removal of a wide range of nonindigenous species, which
currently is used on crude oil tankers, for example.
43
currently is used on crude oil tankers, for example.
Ballast water filtrationsystems design is based on the original filtration system
concept but equipped with more sophisticated selective screens (such as sea chest grates,
perforated metal plates, rapid sand or multimedia filters, and stainless mesh), which
filter out much smaller organisms. The selection of a specific filter system depends on
organisms that are supposed to be filtered, as various species need to be filtered by
various filter sizes.
The large volume filtration systems in large, high flow rate, high nonindigenous species
volume application, like those used on crude oil tankers, have to be supported by selfcleaning systems. These systems remove and store filtered organisms and should be
installed to maximize filtration efficiency by minimizing filter fouling and plugging
(PWSRCAC, 2005f). As the water can be filtered before entering the ballast tank, the
advantage of this system is that organisms may be retained in their native habitat.
Hydrocyclone treatment, also known as centrifugal separation, is based on density. It
operates by pushing sediments and other heavier particles (including NIS) to the outer
portion of an intake pipe, and then they are collected and removed. Centrifuges can be
used both aboard and onshore, and operate at high water flow rates and there is a little
water pressure decrease in the system. In combination with additional chemical or UV
treatment, hydrocyclones could be even more effective in fighting a broad range of
organisms.
Both filtration and centrifugal separation are commonly used in a variety of municipal
and industrial water treatment applications and are well established as a water treatment
system.
Filter sizes in the 10-50µm range are capable of capturing and removing zooplankton
and large organisms, while smaller filters (less than 10µm) are capable of removing
cysts of toxin-producing harmful marine dinoflagellates. Both operations have been used
for years already and demonstrated to be relatively safe for the ship and crew.
Technology challenges facing physical separation systems involve both the system
44
effectiveness and the length of treatment time. Unacceptable pressure drops across filter
media and long back-wash cycles are a continued problem for filtration technologies.
Other challenges include storage and removal of captured organisms and additional
responsibilities for the crew (filter maintenance and operation). While hydrocyclones are
relatively simple to operate, they are less effective at removing smaller organisms than
membrane filter systems.
Discharge to Reception Facilities is a good solution for small harbours without tense
traffic of big vessels, but not very practicable in terms of large ballast water volumes.
After being collected, ballast water should be stored and properly treated in treatment
plants, and this kind of plants requires big capacities. Another point is that no vessels,
excepting tankers, are equipped with the standard connection to berths. However, the
water that has been treated could be reused and as the matter of fact, the treatment
facility could offer economies of scale. Moreover, the treatment operation needs some
additional skills and training, and it is probably better to leave for shore-based
personnel rather than a s crew(Donner, 2010). However, according to the Ballast
Water Management Convention, Parties are not required to provide such facilities.
Other methods of ballast water treatment are currently being investigated and
developed. These methods need much more research and development before they will
be applied to ballast water treatment. Ultraviolet (UV) light is currently used in
hospitals, homeless shelters, and prisons to kill microorganisms and prevent the spread
of disease. This method is most effective on microorganisms, so it would need to be
combined with other methods to effectively remove all potential bio-invaders from
ballast water. One of the main drawbacks is that UV light is ineffective in water
containing suspended matter, so ballast water may need to be filtered before treatment.
Although many methods are being investigated, no treatment has been found that cost
effectively prevents all living organisms from being transported through ballast water.
45
Or, for example, specific acoustic frequencies kill specific organisms, so acoustic
treatment may be effective at removing target organisms but not the wide range of
organisms found in ballast water. Magnetic forces have been shown to kill certain
invertebrates, such as zebra mussels, in laboratory tests. This method has not been tested
on a wide variety of organisms in sea water,so its effectiveness for treating ballast water
is yet to be determined. Electric pulses may be sent through ballast water killing most
organisms. The risk to the crew and the expense and size of the equipment needed to
generate these pulses are the major drawbacks to this method of ballast water treatment.
Some treatments may need to be accompanied by another treatment that covers another
category of organism. For instance, UV treatment may be accompanied by filtration.
Filters of different sizes are also needed in order to cope with the volume of water
exchanged. Larger material must be filtered out, in other words, before the water can be
filtered by a finer mesh.
4. The Black Sea Region
4.1. History, geography, ecology and socio-economy of the region
The political dimensions of the Black Sea Region were vague and changing from time to
time during the whole historical process. In a wide political sense, it extends from
Balkans to the Caucasus Mountains and from the Ukrainian steppe land to central
Anatolia. Almost all countries in this wide area are members of the Black Sea Economic
Cooperation organization (BSEC), which was established in 1992 as an international
forum with the objective of strengthening commercial, political and cultural ties in
southeastern Europe. In a narrow geographical sense there are only six countries that
adjoin the Black Sea: Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, Georgia and Turkey. This
States delimitate and control Black Sea waters and major port facilities(King, 2005).
The Black Sea is a body of water with the total area of over 423,000 km3
, average depth
of 1,300 m reaching maximum 2,245 m and with volume of 547,000 km3
(Kubijovich,
46
of 1,300 m reaching maximum 2,245 m and with volume of 547,000 km3
(Kubijovich,
1984). The Sea expands on 1,174 kilometres from the Bulgarian port Burgas on the west
to the Georgian port of Batumi in the east, and stretches on amaximum of 611 km from
South to North and only 260 km from the tip of Crimean peninsula to the Turkish port of
Inebolu (Encarta Encyclopaedia, 2003). The strait of Kerch (also known as the
Bosporus -fresh Sea of Azov.
Even though the Black Sea is directly bordered by only six countries, it is being
influenced by another 10 States through the major rivers meeting it, among which
Danube, Dnieper and Dniester Danube, Dnieper and Dniester are the biggest ones. On the north and north the biggest ones. On the north and north-west, where west, where
rivers meet the Sea, there are limans estuaries and brackish wetlands. The western tip
of the Black Sea lies at the Bosporusin Turkey and the eastern tip lies on the mouth of
the river Rioni which flows from Caucasian mountains through the country of Georgia.
The Black Sea is considered to be a residual basin of the Central European Tethys Sea
(Kubijovich, 1984). Possibly because of its unpredictable and peculiar behaviour, in
ancient Greek and Romanian sailors called it Axeinos
Iranian and later Axenos Pontos
appearing from nowhere and heavy fogs were making the navigation impossible (King,
2005). At the early fifth century b.c.the name was replaced with Euxinos Pontos
(Gibbon, 1910).
The Black Sea as is known today is a relatively young body of water. Through the times
it used to be connected with the ocean, isolated as a small semi-saline lake, linked with
what is now known as the Caspian Sea. In fact some 18,000 20,000 ago it used to be a
shallow lake, or Neoeuxine lake, two third of its current size.
At some point (7,500 years ago c. 5500 bc in the middle of the Neolithic period),
when melting ice water swelled the oceans, the higher Mediterranean Sea started spilling
over into the low-lying lake, creating Dardanelles and Bosporus straits and the
intermediary Sea of Marmara. The water level was rapidly raising (presumably about 15
cm per day) destroying islands and human settlements on its way. In fact, the former
47
cm per day) destroying islands and human settlements on its way. In fact, the former
shoreline is now lying approximately 150 meters below the surface. Another interesting
fact is that because of the difference in salinities, this torrent was divided into two flows:
the upper level with less salinity was floating toward the Mediterranean Sea, while the
lower level with the salty water was moving to the Black Sea and there was practically
no intermediate zone between those two layers.
Today two almost closed circular horizontal sea current systems dominate in the Black
Sea(Kubijovich, 1984). The major surface current is caused by the cyclonic pattern of
the winds counter clockwise along the coast and is fed by river Danube on the west and
river Rioni on the east(Jones, 1827). The two circular currents are crossing the sea and
are supported on the northeast by the river Don flowing in through the Sea of Azov and
the strait of Kerch and on the southwest by the water running from the Bosphorus.
Besides there are also vertical currents on the surface waters not deeper than 200 m.
The Black Sea Ecosystem is strongly influenced by the limited exchange of water
through the Bosporus as well as from a number ofrivers flowing into it and contributing
to a high phytoplankton production (Caddy, 1993). Sea grass and macro-algal
communities, such as brown algae Cystoseira barbata and red algae Phyllophora sp,
provide the bulk of primary productivity in shallow parts of the sea (Heileman, 2007).
The nutrient suppliesoriginating from drainage areas flow along coasts of the basin and
then turns to the open sea providing the blooming of plankton algae (King, 2005).The
Black Sea is considered a highly productive ecosystem.The ecology of the Black Sea is
quite unique and influenced by salty dense water from the Mediterranean Seawhich fills
up the deeper areas and river water at the surface. The less salty and dense water stayed
on the surface and the water exchange between the surface and the bottom is limited. In
fact there are four layers of water gradually changing one another (Heileman, 2007):
1. The oxygenated upper level, about 80-90 m along the coast and about 40 m in
the deep sea;
2. The oxycline (60 150 m under the upper level), where the concentration of
48
2. The oxycline (60 150 m under the upper level), where the concentration of
oxygen decreases rapidly;
3. The suboxic zone, in which oxygen levels decline slowly to the anoxic layer;
4. The anoxic (sulphide-bearing) zone with no oxygen (close to 90% of Black Sea
deep waters).
Due to the anoxia, there is no deep pelagic and benthic life in the Black Sea;most of the
marine life is situated on the top layer excepting quite a few anaerobic bacteria in the
hydrogen sulphide layer. There are some less sensitive species that have survived from
the time of the Neoeuxine Lake, such as herring and sturgeon. Others, like the flounder,
whiting, sprat, and Black Sea trout, whiting, sprat, and Black Sea trout, have migrated to have migrated to the rivers and adapted to semi the rivers and adapted to semisaline waters. Even though 80 per cent of the Black Sea species are historical invaders
from the warm Mediterranean Sea (King, 2005), the number of such species is only on
third of the number of species in the Mediterranean Sea: 350 species of protozoa, 650
species of crustaceans, over 200 species of molluscs, about 180 species of fish, and 4
species of mammals (the monk seal and 3 species ofdolphin) (Kubijovich, 1984).The
plant community consists of around 350 unicellular phytoplankton species, 280 bottom
macrophytes, several grass species, and sea herbs. Nonetheless, the total productivity is
higher in the Black Sea rather than in the Mediterranean Sea.
The ecological degradation of the Black sea has gone very far compared to other
regional seas. Besides alien species, the main ecological threats to the biodiversity in the
Black Sea are eutrophication, oil, litter and chemical pollution, inappropriate water
management and regulation and overfishing (Heileman, 2007).
4.2. Alien species in Black Sea and their impact
The diversity of ecosystems providesa favourable environment for invasion of alien
species to the Black Sea. Due to constant invasions, the composition and structure of the
biodiversity in the Black Sea is constantly changing, the population of one species
expand, and others decline (Heileman, 2007). Most
49
expand, and others decline (Heileman, 2007). Most
ballast water and hull fouling, but natural vectors such as a current flow from the
Mediterranean Sea could not be excluded. According to W.Ryan`s and W.Pitman`s book
waters in the bilge water of ancient
Greek row galleys(Ryan, 2000).
Today there are many invasive species, introduced to the Black Sea one way or another.
Different species have adapted to life in the Black Sea and expanded their ranges
depending on salinity and temperature. Some of them have been introduced
intentionally, for example the oriental mullet Mugil soiuy, also known as kefali. It was
brought from the Sea of Japan, successfully adapted to the Black Sea and became
extremely popular among industrial and local fisheries. Kefali is rather tolerant to
various temperature conditions and salinities and can occupy bothsalty and fresh waters
and dwells both in the sea and in estuaries. It subjects some food competition to native
species; especially in freshwater estuaries and some reduction of population of some of
them have been noted, but not significant. Even though it is important to remember that
ill-conceived invention could bear the risk, at the time kefali does not constitute much
menace to the ecosystem and is expected not to do so.
Other species were introduced unintentionally by numerous vectors and had various
impacts. Such organisms as Balanus improvisus or Mya arenaria, described further,
could be considered as examples of the good impact.
The presence of Balanus improvisus (also known as Sea acorn) in the Black Sea was
first recorded in 1844 and most likely was brought there from the Atlantic coast of
America by hull fouling; however, more recent introductions were possibly made by
ballast water or with commercial shellfish (Gomoiu, 2002). It is a barnacle surrounded
with 6 smooth shell palates with maximum size of 20 mm in diameter. It is usually
attached to solid surfaces or other animals` shelters with the calcareous base with radial
pattern. This base remains on the surface even after the removal of the animal. It is a
rather euthermal (survives with temperatures as low as -2° C and up to 35° C)
(Southward, 1957) and euhaline (it could habitat both in salty sea water and in fresh
50
(Southward, 1957) and euhaline (it could habitat both in salty sea water and in fresh
water ofestuaries) organism, tolerant to various depths, low oxygen, eutrophication and
pollution (Leppäkosli, 1999).They are filtering water around themselves, actively
purifying the sea water from the organic suspension of bacteria, unicellular algae and
zooplankton. B.improvisus definitely plays a positive role in a maritime community as it
provides feeding for numerous marine habitats, as millions of Balanus larvae constitute
a significant part of the zooplankton that is a part of the daily ration of different marine
species. Moreover, it is not engaged in a food conflict with other organisms, for example
when attac when attached to the shell of a lobster, hed to the shell of a lobster,it eats leftovers from its food. eats leftovers from its food.
Another good example is a bivalve Mya arenaria that was first found in bottom sands of
the Black Sea in 1966 and probably was introduced by ships from North Europe or even
North American coast. Same as Bolanus improvisus, obtains food by filtering sea water
and purifying it without having any significant food conflict with indigenous organisms.
As neighbours in a block, they are supposed to interact and have one or another kind of
relationships among each other. Those interactions could be either mutually beneficial
or dangerous for them. One of the brightest examples of the interesting interaction is the
Beroe vs Mnemiopsis, which have already collected a grateful audience of
scientists and environmentalists from all over the world.
Basically there is only one indigenous ctenophore species in the Black Sea, which is
Pleurobrachia pileus; however, during the last two decadesthree other ctenophores
were unintentionally introduced to Black Sea waters – Mnemiopsis leidyi and Beroe
ovata and Bolinopsis vitrea (Vinogradov et.al, 1989).
The ctenophore Mnemiopsis ledui(also known as American comb jelly, comb jellyfish,
sea walnut, Venus’ girdle) have become famous among European hydrobiologists and
environmentalistsrecently. There was not much discussion of this beautiful jellyfish in
terms of its invasive capabilities before it wasfirst found in Sudak Bay in November
1982 (Pereladov, 1988), where it was accidentally transported in ballast water (Ghabooli
51
1982 (Pereladov, 1988), where it was accidentally transported in ballast water (Ghabooli
et al., 2010).By the fall 1988 it has literally occupied the Black Sea and surrounding
areas, disordered the ecosystem and collapsed fisheries(Oguz et al., 2008). It was
recognized as one of the major ecological problems for the Black Sea LME (Kideys,
2002) with the impact cost of approximately $200 million per year.
Comb jellyfish is a hermaphrodite with high self-reproduction rate and capability of
rapid colonization of new areas (Kremer, 1994). It is physiologically tolerant to
temperatures (about 0o
-32o
), salinity and dissolved oxygen levels(Purcell et al., 2001).
However, it is able to reproduce only in warm water, so cold winter seasons are
unsuitable for the reproduction unsuitable for the reproduction and in some regions lead to and in some regions lead to elimination elimination (Costello et al., Costello et al.,
2006), like it happened, for instance, in the cold Sea of Azov, where the jellyfish
disappears for the cold period and then being brought back from warmer Black Sea in a
spring time. In suitable food and temperature conditions, larvae are predisposed to grow
into adult form within some 14 days (Reeve & Walter, 1978).Mnemiopsys is also rather
flexible in terms of its diet; it consumes variable planktonic food sources, including
microplankton, mesozooplankton and ichthyoplankton. However, the reproduction of
Mnemiopsisis sensitive to food supply as the high reproductive growth nature demands
high-prey availability.
The dramatic reduction in zooplankton, ichthyoplankton, and zooplanktivorous fish
population has been recorded sharply after the comb jelly`s invasion. It caused the whole
chain of effects such as an increase in phytoplankton, free from grazing pressure and
increasing of bacterioplankton population, and led to the increase in zooflagellates and
infuzoria population. It also caused the collapse of planktivorous fish and disappearance
of dolphins in the Black Sea. Even though it does not represent direct danger to human
life, it entails significant economic losses for coastal countries of the Black Sea region
due to decline in pelagic fish catches, estimated in hundreds of millions of dollars.
Comb jelly`s invasion in suitable conditions is uncontrollable in areas where they have
no natural predators, such the Black Sea used to be until 1997, when Beroe ovata, the
old enemy of the jelly fish from the Atlantic Ocean reached it (Shiganova et al., 2003).
52
old enemy of the jelly fish from the Atlantic Ocean reached it (Shiganova et al., 2003).
Beroe ovate (B. cucumis) originally inhabits the Atlantic Ocean coasts near the USA and
Canada (Mills, 1996). It is a pelagic organism tolerant to low water salinity (4-7 %%). It
swims freely in the water column at depths from just below the surface to more than
1,700 meters below it and inhabits estuaries as well as coasts (Beroe ovataBruguière
1789, 2011).Beroe ovate development is much the same as most of the ctenophores;
they are hermaphrodites e.g. capable for constant self-reproduction under favourable
temperatures and feeding conditions. Similar to the Mnemiopsis, it produces several
thousands of eggs daily. They do not change their general body types, but just increase
in size. diet consists only of other jellyfish, like Mnemiopsis or
Pleurobrachia. Interestingly, it is still not understood how exactly it senses its prey, but
once being around one, it finds it easily and digests it in minutes.
Beroe vs Mnemiopsis
When it became clear that Mnemiopsis causes a real hazard to the Black Sea, it was
considered to artificially introduce its original biological enemy to control the population
of the jellyfish. However, this idea was recognized by biologists as a risky one. They
assumed that even if Beroe would help to fight Mnemiopsis, this experiment could go
unpredictably wrong. It could start eating other native Black Sea comb jellies or even
other species and misbalance the ecosystem again, so nobody was willing to take such a
responsibility. However,Beroe ovata hasfound its own way to the Black Sea without
intervention by humans, most likely in ships` ballast water again, as Mnemiopsis did
before. It first appeared in the shallow water of the Black Sea in October 1997 (Zaitsev,
1998) and by September 1999 in Sevastopol bay and on the north-eastern coast
(Finenko, 2000). While a lot of scientists all over the world were thinking how to deal
with Mnemiopsis` invasion, Beroe has caused a massive decline in the Mnemiopsis
population and some species of plankton began to increase. However, the long-term
53
population and some species of plankton began to increase. However, the long-term
effect still remained difficult to predict and scientists kept monitoring the dynamics and
seasonal variations. This monitoring helped to make some really important conclusions,
such as the population on Mnemiopsisin the joint habitat have been reduces by ten times
comparing to the year with favourable conditions with absence of Beroe(Shiganova et
al, 2000).They were also able to formulate some statements predetermining the
effective scientific and industrial work with regard to the Beroe ovata controlling over
development of Mnemiopsis population in the Black Sea, as follows(Volovik, n.d.):
Sharp reduction of the Mnemiopsis population is possible when the population of
the Beroe is numerous;
The dynamics of populations of both speciesremains the same as in the natural
habitat: first Mnemiopsis sharply increases its population, reaching maximum
figures, and then outbursts of Beroe appear and cope with them during 3-4
weeks.
Scientists expect Beroe ovata to help to control the population of Mnemiopsis and solve
the biggest alien invasion threat of last three decades. Unfortunately, it is impossible to
predict the result and the issue remains hot and needs constant monitoring and control.
The presence of the third ctenophore-invader, Bolinopsis vitrea (L. Agassiz, 1860)
(Ctenophora: Lobata) was first reported in 2007, when it was found in Turkish waters
and in 2010 in Bulgarian waters. Most possibly it was brought by currents from the
Aegean Sea through the Sea of Marmara;however, the further distribution is believed to
be done by ballast water(Öztürk, 2011).B. vitrea habitats preferably in shallow warm
waters and its diet consist of zooplankton, eggs and fish larvae. It has not yet been
considered as an established species, but in case does, it may have an impact on the
biodiversity of the Black Sea. For example, it could become a natural competitor for M.
leidyi and along with B. ovata would help to control its population; however, negative
impacts cannot be excluded.
54
Another interesting interaction: Mytilus galloprovincialis vs Rapana thomasiana
Mytilus galloprovincialis(blue mussel, Mediterranean mussel, Black Sea mussel) is
native to the Mediterranean coast and Adriatic and Black Seas (mostly around
Ukrainian, Romanian, Turkish and Bulgarian coasts). Basically, the mussel grows up to
140 mm in length, and has a smooth blue-violet, black of brown-shaded shell(Day,
1969). It could be found mostly attached to rocky surfaces and sometimes on the sandy
bottom. This small animal plays a significant role in Black Sea ecology and aquaculture.
First of all, because it is a perfect natural sea water cleaning filter or, as locals call it,
ecosystem of the Black Sea is shown in the bacterial pollution of its coastal waters, and
this mussel is a highly important actor of the sanitary-bacteriological reclamation of the
Black Sea. During the filtration, a mussel absorbs all the organic compounds, which in
warm water facilitate the rapid developing of bacteria, including pathogens(Alekseev,
2011). The filtration process depends on the outer conditions, as temperature, salinity,
oxygen and continues 12-16 hours per day. It is estimated that one 80-100 mm long
mussel is capable ofpassing through itself 100 liters of sea water per day. The estimate
speed of the filtration is 0,5 litres per hour for 1 gram of body mass, so it is fair to say
that it can significantly influence the process of the coastal water purification.
Rapana thomasiana (Rapana venosa).The figured shell of this beautiful mollusc
became a popular souvenir to remember the beastliness of the Black Sea. Not
everybody knows however, that it is a dangerous invader from the western Pacific,
native to the Sea of Japan, East China Sea and Bohai Sea (Richerson, 2008).It was
introduced tothe Black Sea region in the mid-1940smost likely by ship fouling and
ballast water. It is a dioecious gastropod, mating during winter and spring. Upon
hatching the larvae are planktotrophic with variable duration of the planktonic period
which facilitate its dispersal and invasion. The adult form habitats on rocks and solid
55
which facilitate its dispersal and invasion. The adult form habitats on rocks and solid
substances, sublittoral sediments and sandy bottoms. Rapana has large tolerance in
temperatures (4-27o C), water pollution and low oxygen conditions(Gollasch, 2006).It
is a predator carnivore, which prefers mainly molluscs,such as oysters (crassostrea
virginica) and mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis, Geukensia) (Savini, Occhipinti-
Ambrogi, 2006). The invasion of Rapana is believed to be the main reason for declining
the population of Mytilus galloprovincialic, an important mollusc in commercial
aquaculture, mostly in Bulgarian coastal waters and Crimea.
As it does not have any natural enemies in the Black Sea (such as Sea stars) , it is
believed that the best way to believed that the best way to control the population of control the population ofRapana is intensive catching intensive catching and
utilization in food; moreover, it is rich for protein and useful nutrients.
Bulgaria has managed to develop the exploitation of thisinvasive sea snail in a large
scale and make it the main export sea catch product. Rapana alone accounts for 47.7 %
of total catches, with the total revenue of 4.200.000 euro only in 2005 and more than two
thousand seasonal employees (Popescu, 2011). Moreover, everybody is invited to catch
as many sea snails as they are willing with the non-industrial purpose.
In Ukraine however this problem has raised a lot of discussions and confusion. The
State Fisheries Committee of Ukraine has decreed the limitation of unauthorized catch
of Rapana Thomasiana for 10 sea snails per person per day and set the fine of around 1
euro for every extra one caught. Moreover, it is not allowed to catch Rapana with an
aqualung or another self-contained breathing apparatus. Local divers and
hydrobiologists are extremely outraged by such a sanction and have addressed the
ission to use
breathing apparatus to catch Rapana
the Ministry of Agrarian Policy of Ukraine, to investigate the matter and take steps to
Many scientists think thatthe only way to preserve the Black Sea ecology is to increase
56
Many scientists think thatthe only way to preserve the Black Sea ecology is to increase
the population of mussels, and this is possible only with the decrease in the population
of the predatory Rapa welk. That is why they believe it is so important to cancel all the
restrictions on catching Rapana, permit trade souvenirs of its shell and actively promote
catching this predator (Alekseev, 2011).
5. Black Sea Regional cooperation on the problem of AIS
5.1. Regional cooperation and its objectives
Full and timely work on all the stages of the implementation of the Convention on the
national level is quite a challenging task. It requires not only the explicit will of the
governmental and legislative branches, but also a well-regulated interaction mechanism
of the governmental agencies. The mechanismfor implementing the provisions of
certain international agreements, such as BWM Convention, in the shipping industry
varies greatly depending on:
– The purpose of the agreement (vessels, shore facilities,waterways, staff);
– The adoption of the agreement (approaches and implementation mechanisms are
changing and improving through the time);
– International Forum (organization) andframework of which the agreement is being
developed;
– Urgency (topicality) of the implementation which depends on the original purpose of
the agreement;
All that makes it necessary for the State to have a wide range of administrative tools and
a flexible approach to the implementation on the national level. Further, it much depends
on the success of the multilateral co-operation on the regional level.
Objectives of the regional cooperation
Major opportunities for mutually beneficial cooperation between the neighbouring states
on the implementation of international agreements are:
– The co-operation of governmental delegations and groups of experts in discussing the
57
– The co-operation of governmental delegations and groups of experts in discussing the
draft agreements in international organizations such as IMO due to the similarity of the
objectives, economic conditions, and industrial cooperation;
– Exchange of the experience, information, legislation and ideas in the early stages of
implementation, before the agreement enters into force;
– Coordination of procedures for implementing the requirements of the agreement;
– Development of information procedures for more effective meeting the requirements of
the agreement;
Because of the international character of the commercial shipping, the attempt to avoid
the regional cooperation in the implementation of agreements leads to barriers and even
conflict. Of course, this situation should be avoided.
Features of the situation in the Black Sea region
In order to harmonize and co-ordinate all these positions, there is one important
condition: national legislation, political objectives and economic interests of the
participating countries should be similar. Despite the fact that three out of six Black Sea
region countries, Ukraine, Russia and Georgia, used to be parts of the USSR, and they
are now participants of the Commonwealth of Independent States, and two others,
Romania and Bulgaria, are now a part of the EU; therefore, legislation, managing system
and economic interests of all six countries differ increasingly. In these conditions the
development of the uniform strategy for all the countries is problematic or impossible.
The adoption of the strategy, the establishment of the regulatory framework and
infrastructure for implementation of the agreement, and an analysis of the effectiveness
of the measures taken should be done first, and then, on the basis of these results, a
decision on ratification should be made. In this case, each government will come to a
new international regime fully mobilized. This way the each State can implement its
own strategy based on national interests.
The Commission on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution with its Permanent
58
The Commission on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution with its Permanent
Secretariat in Istanbul, Turkey was created as a result of acting on the mandate of the
Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution and implements the
provisions of the Convention and the Black Sea Strategic Action Plan, adopted in 1996
and amended in 2009.
The Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution (Bucharest
Convention) was signed in Bucharest in April 1992, and ratified by all six legislative
assemblies of the Black Sea countries in the beginning of1994. Basic objectives of the
Convention include prevention, reduction and control of the pollution of the marine
environment from vessels, protection of the biodiversity and the marine living resources
and provision of the framework for scientific and technical co-operation and monitoring
activities.
The Convention states that actions needed for the prevention of introduction of exotic
species include improvement of the national reporting on exotic species and supporting
regional activities related to continuous studies of invasive speciessuch as Mnemiopsis
leidyi and Rapana venosa.
Black Sea Strategic Action Plan is a document representing an agreement between the
six Black Sea Coastal states to act in concert to Help in the continued recovery of the
Black Sea. This document Black Sea. This document provides a brief over provides a brief overview of the status of the Sea view of the status of the Sea, based on based on
information contained within the 2007 Black Sea Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis
(BS TDA). For example, among other pieces of information, the state of the biodiversity
is described in paragraph 2.4. as follows:
f 48 new alien species were recorded, which represents
over 22 % of all registered aliens. The majority belong to phytoplankton (16) and
zoobenthos (15), followed by zooplankton (8), fish (5), macro-algae (3) and mammals
(1). This increase in invasive aliens suggests a serious impact on the Black Sea native
biological diversity, with negative consequences for human activities and economic
Also, BS SAP takesinto account the progress achieving the aims of the original (1996)
59
Also, BS SAP takesinto account the progress achieving the aims of the original (1996)
Black Sea Strategic Action Plan (BS SAP). This updated version of the BS SAP
describes the policy actions required to meet the major environmental challenges now
facing the Black Sea, and includes long-term Ecosystem Quality Objectives (EcoQOs)
statements regarding the vision of how the state of the Black Sea is desired to be seen in
a long term, with identification of the priorities based on BS TDA, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Targets and priorities regarding AIS
Short- Mid- LongReference
(Annex 3)
Overall target
Shortterm
target
Midterm
target
Longterm
target
Priority
(26)
Promote cooperation in the Black Sea in
line with principles and
recommendations of the International
Convention for the Control and
Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and
Sediments.
High
(27)
Harmonise ballast water procedures
(27) High
using IMO guidelines.
High
(28)
Identify actions towards ratification of
the BWM Convention in the BS region.
High
Source: BS SAP, 2008.
Among others, the EcoQO on the Conservation of Black Sea Biodiversity and Habitats
is stated as follows (BSC, 2009a):
EcoQO 2a: Reduce the risk of extinction of threatened species.
EcoQO 2b: Conserve coastal and marine habitats and landscapes.
60
EcoQO 2c: Reduce and manage human mediated species introductions
A report by the Commission on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution (BSC,
2009b) regarding the implementation of the Strategic Action Plan for the Rehabilitation
and Protection of the Black Sea states a significant movement noted in the last decade in
Black Sea rehabilitation and protection. In particular, a real progress in the development
of regional/international cooperation, including co-operation on diversity, habitat and
landscape protection and development of Black Sea information system and
monitoring program. However, the challenges faced in the 1990s are noted to still be
present and urgent present and urgent. Further strengthen urther strengthening of safety aspects of any human activity in the of safety aspects of any human activity in the
region are mentioned as needed as the picture with the invasive species still looks
threatening. According to the Report, between 1996 and 2005 a total of 48 new alien
species were recorded, which represents over 22 % of all registered aliens in the Black
Sea. The majority belong to phytoplankton (16) and zoobenthos (15), followed by
zooplankton (8), fish (5), macroalgae (3) and mammals (1).
The majority (68 %) of the introductions are human-mediated and only 13 % are a
result of the natural expansion of species Ship ballast waters are clearly identified as the
primary vector (30 %) of alien introductions in the Black Sea, followed by aquaculture
(11 %).
During the process of implementation of the BS SAP, the following challenges
regarding the cooperation on the Black Sea region countries on the problem of invasive
alien species were stated (BSC, 2009b):
seriously damaged the Black Sea ecosystem and constitutes a threat to the adjacent
Mediterranean and Caspian Seas.
The considerable number of records of new aliens between 1996 and 2005 show that the
Black Sea is still a favourable region by those transported especially with ballast
water. Therefore, the prediction and prevention of invasion by potentially harmful
species continues to be a challenge for the Black Sea.
61
14. Pending the resolution of ocean boundary matters in the region, close cooperation
among Black Sea coastal states, in adopting interim arrangements which facilitate the
rehabilitation of and protection of the Black Sea ecosystem and the sustainable
management of its resources shall be pursued.
15. Cooperation among all Black Sea basin states, and, in particular, between the Black
Sea coastal states and the states of the Danube river basin, shall be promoted.
41. Black Sea states will present a joint proposal to the IMO, in 2004, for
conducting an in-depth study on measures to avoid any further introductions of exotic
species into the Black Sea through the de-ballasting of vessels. Given the danger of such
species migrating to other seas in the region, the coastal states of the Caspian and
Mediterranean Seas will be consulted.
5.2. GloBallast in BS Region
Activities of the GloBallast programme around the Black Sea region is aimed to increase
the competitiveness of its port and maritime industry, supporting the development of
awareness of the problem and aid port state responsibilities in enforcement.
GloBallast Programme (Phase I)
As it was mentioned above, the Black Sea region was one of the focus points of the
GloBallast Programme starting with the first Black Sea Conference on Ballast Water
Control and Management Odessa, Ukraine 10-12 October 2001 and resulted in the
signing of the Ballast Water Management Convention by all six countries in 2004.
During this time a lot of work was done by the governments of all six states namely, the
62
During this time a lot of work was done by the governments of all six states namely, the
Regional Action Plan to minimize the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and
pathogens in ships ballast water was drafted and its main recommendations were
incorporated in the updated Strategic Action Plan in 2008.
Also, ballast water related Regional Task Force was implemented to minimize the
trans
the Strategic Action Plan of the Black Sea had been revised in a framework of this
programme, where the present status of ballast water management requirements was
summarize summarized (Annex II.5). It was stated that (Annex II.5). It was stated that the level of ballast water management was the level of ballast water management was
varying from country to country and a harmonized and agreed upon uniform approach
had been lacking.
BWM Convention implementation in the Black Sea region
The purpose of the Convention is to prevent, minimize and finally eliminate the danger
to the environment and human health due to the transfer of harmful organisms and
pathogens through the control and management of ships` ballast water and sediments, as
well as to avoid undesirable side effects of this control and the promotion of
development of related sciences and technologies.
The objectives of the Convention at the national level need the implementation of the
following tasks:
– The creation of national standards of common law (regulatory) and legal institutions
(institutional structures), to address the problem of ballast water;
– Ensure the effective coordination and support, including the functioning of the
information analyses and spread;
– Development and implementation of a national plan of action aimed at minimizing of
the movement of harmful aquatic organisms in ballast water of ships;
– Assessment of levels and types of risks and the most vulnerable resources and wealth,
63
which can be subject to these risks;
– The maintenance of coordinated research aimed at the development of the new and
more efficient processing of water ballast;
– On-going monitoring of the implementation of the Convention and adherence to its
standards;
– Providing support in the implementation of notable improvements to the navigation
aimed at solving the problem of ballast waters;
– Increasing the national capacity to address the ballast water problem;
– The development of a national strategy to prevent the invasion of aquatic organisms;
– Matching of ballast water management programs with existing marine and coastal
management systems;
– Facilitation of the cooperation of countries with different levels of development at the
regional level;
– Development of sustainable financial and organizational systems for the management
and control of ballast water.
Due to the fact that its provisions apply equally to both vessels and on-shore monitoring
systems, their implementation should involve central executive authorities responsible
for the functions of the flag state and port state (transport, fisheries) and the coastal state
(health and environment protection).
Due to the special status of the Black Sea as a land-locked sea basin, the agreement on
coordination on the regional level would be appropriate. Therefore, all six countries
appointed organizations responsible for the implementation of the Convention and
coordination with administrations of other countries both on the regional and
international levels. Moreover, the exchange of the information on biological status of
the marine environment and identification of invasive organisms between all relevant
countries, international organizations and research centres is extremely important for the
timely prevention of new introductions ( IMO BSC join h n.d.).
64
timely prevention of new introductions ( IMO BSC join h n.d.).
GloBallast Partnership (Phase II)
Within the framework of GloBallast Partnerships, on 8th of July 2010 the International
Maritime Organization and Black Sea Commission signed a Memorandum of
Understanding to increase mutual support on environmental aspects of shipping such as
the oil pollution preparedness, ballast water management and dumping ( IMO BSC
n.d.)..The agreement for this co-operation was approved by IMO on its
26th session held on November – December 2009, and by the Black Sea Commission at
themeeting held in January 2010 to increase the further contribution to achieving the
common objectives of both organizations. Shortly after, as a first joint activity within the
framework of the signed MoU, two organizations arranged a workshop to prepare the
Black Sea littoral States to ratify the International Ballast Water Management
Convention. Regarding the Convention, among all the Black Sea states, only Russia has
ratified it since 2004.
Since 2004 the Russian port of Novorossiysk carries out tool control of replacement of
ship ballast, monitoring of biological pollution of ballast water dumped in port areas,
complex ecological research together with the Institute of Oceanology and
Oceanography of the Russian Academy of Science.
A comprehensive project for the development of the management plan in Turkey has
been nearly finalized. Regular monitoring of ballast water was planned in Romania and
Bulgaria, but not in place so far. Unfortunately, this is a core gap for the management of
transport related environmental damages in the region. Harmonization of ballast water
rules is still under discussion in the frames of the Black Sea Commission work plan and
65
upon availability offinancial support.
Ukraine, as one of the first countries that implemented requirements for the ballast water
exchange, developed several projects for ballast water treatment, developed proposals
and even made some corrections for Ballast Water Management Convention when it was
already after consideration. Shortly after adoption, the text of Convention was translated
and filed and that is where the process of ratification of the Convention by Ukraine has
stopped. In spite of all the actions taken by the Ukrainian GloBallast team, after all this
time the Convention is still under consideration, but in fact not going to be ratified at the
nearest future. The fleet is ready for meeting the requirements of the Convention
because the ballast water exchange is being done and the ballast record books and ballast
plan are being kept. But obviously the concept of the ballast water management expands
not only on fleet, but on a significant amount of shore-based services, which still remain
not ready for the ratification. Even though ballast water from every vessel calling
Ukrainian ports has to be compulsory to be analysed, it is being tested for the iron
content but not for the presence of exotic species. The problem of the iron content could
barely be more important for local ecosystem than a problem of non-indigenous species;
however, in fact, local legislation has not changes since 1990s(Sagaydak, 2012).Thus
shipowners have to meet the requirements of not only the Convention, but those
established but the local legislation.
Another important feature of this problem is that the ballast water treatment equipment
is quite difficult in exploitation, and often dangerous, especially equipment using active
substance or ultrasound. Obviously it supposed to be operated by highly qualified and
trained personal and as countries of the Black Sea Region are the key human resources
suppliers in shipping, to keep this leading position they have to prepare their seafarers to
the requirements of the Convention (Sagaydak, 2012).
How is it possible that the problem, which is considered as one of the biggest threats to
66
world oceans is so much ignored in a region that suffers so much of it? Funds for
meeting BMW requirements are not being allocated and obviously the problem of
ballast water management is not being paid enough attention. Why is it happening and
how to deal with it?
In opinion of the author, there are three main challenges on the way of solving the
problem of invasive alien species in the Black Sea Region:
1) Lack of public awareness, as public understanding of a scale of exotic species
invasion problem is obviously insufficient and enlightening could possibly lead
to more actions from not only government but residents of the region. According
to the interview with one of former leaders of the Black Sea Regional GloBallast
team, there are very few people in the region, including both scientists and
officials, who understand actual scale of the problem and they are not enough to
budge the whole system towards solving it. That also explains why the
GloBallast programme became so inactive in the region lately. Therefore, some
more actions including training programs, mass media coverage and conferences
aimed on raising the public awareness are needed in the region.
One of the significant steps towards supporting awareness was the Black Sea
water training organized by the European Bank for Reconstruction and
Development together with the International Maritime Organization. The aim of
establish global awareness, particularly in developing
regions, to uphold the ballast water convention and to make local authorities
conducted in Russia and Ukraine in 2011 (Eason, 2011).
67
2) Incomprehension of the fact that even though actions towardssolving the
problem of aquatic invasions and implementation of the Ballast Water
Management Convention require big investments and do not give any material
profit excepting healthy ecosystem, it is still important to take care in sake of
sustainable future not only of the Black Sea, but also all the other water
ecosystems. In fact, as during last decades the Black Sea is suffering from a
decrease in fishing haul and other problems, described earlier in this paper, it
entails even greater monetary losses. This fact should be considered in case the
healthy environment healthy environment itselfis not a sufficient argument. is not a sufficient argument.
3)
mitigation ofharmful impact of invasive species unfortunately is not the top
priority for the national investments, especially in terms of an economic crisis. In
fact, even those investments that are made, in most cases are not distributed
properly and need to be highly controlled due to the fact that countries such as
Ukraine orRussia hold top positions in the list of the most corrupted countries in
the world (Transparency International, 2011). For instance, Ukraine gets a lot of
complains from shipowners all over the world, about the imperfection of legal
regulation such as serious offenses in Ukrainian ports in connection with the
abuse of power when dealing with ballast water operations, which is already a
favourite way for ecological inspectors to put pressure on Masters (Sagaydak,
2012).
Apparently, the lack of motivation is one of the major obstacles on the way to solving
the problem of invasive alien species in the Black Sea Region. Therefore, some pressing
from the global society and responsible international organizations such as IMO or
could be useful. However, it barely could be a way out of the problem unless
there is a strong political will of the Black Sea region countries to solve it, as the
68
environment of the region should basically be protected by them.
6. Conclusions
The problem of alien invasive species is one of the biggest threats to the ocean
dangerous disease and cause significant material losses. As most of the alien species are
transported unintentionally by humans through the international shipping, the
responsibility is supposed to be taken by humans.
During last few decades this problem has been reviewed by many scientists and other
international, regional and national actors. The progress is quite noticeable as the Ballast
Water Management Convention was adopted and ratified by many countries and is about
to enter into force in a short time. The GloBallast programme and GloBallast partnership
were initiated with the aim to support developing countries with the problem;
international, regional and national organizations all over the world support IMO`s and
other organizations` initiative regarding the problem and cooperate on all the levels for
solving the problem; scientistsfrom all over the world are looking for most effective
mechanisms, methods and techniques for prevention, treatment and mitigation of
consequences. However, this problem is impossible to solve, but only to control and
even this aim seems to be unbelievably challenging. Once the invaders are in the sea, it
is almost impossible to eliminate them or the harm they cause.
On the one hand, due to the international nature of the problem, it is impossible to solve
it without strong, effective cooperation on the international level. On the other hand, due
to the specific character of every ecosystem, it is impossible to make up one uniform
solution for all ecosystems. However, it is reasonable to make decisions on the regional
and in some cases national levels. That is why the solution is only in the interaction
between international mechanisms with regional organizations and implementation of
69
results of such cooperation on the national level.
The Black Sea region is one of the most vulnerable ecosystems because of its
characteristics. The cooperation of Black Sea countries is pretty strong. However, the
Convention has still not yet entered into force and not all possible actions have been
taken. During this research it became clear that there are two major challenges regarding
the problem of invasive alien species:
1) Lack of public awareness;
2) Incomprehension of the importance of the problem;
3) Lack of funds of the Black Sea region.
If not all necessary actions are taken rapidly, the result might be catastrophic. In fact, the
situation is already distressful and only effective cooperation and willingness to make a
difference could be a key to the successful solution of the problem of invasive alien
species for the sake of the sustainable future of every single water body particularly and
Global Ocean in general.
70
APPENDIX A
Global Shipping routes in 2007
Source: http://globallast.imo.org/
71
APPENDIX B
Strategy for GloBallast Project Implementation
Source: http://globallast.imo.org/
72
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