Posted: August 2nd, 2022

International Commercial Law:

Topic: International Commercial Regulation.
Module: International Commerce and WTO Regulation.

The subject: ‘The WTO authorized order is supposed to advertise free commerce. It doesn’t and mustn’t accommodate its Member States’ curiosity in selling non-trade aims.’ Critically focus on this assertion. You possibly can both focus in your reply on the hyperlink between commerce and a specific non-trade goal of your selection or take a broader strategy in your Assessment. Please interact in your Assessment with major and secondary sources.

might you please write at a font measurement of 12, 1.5 line spacing, Moreover, might you please write an introduction and conclusion, and notes the Question Assignment’s request for (Critically focus on this assertion), The hyperlink between commerce and a specific non-trade goal of your selection or take a broader strategy in your Assessment, and please interact in your Assessment with major and secondary sources.

are you able to please depend on a number of sources comparable to insert points, books, Acts, Articles, magazines, web sites,
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International Commercial Regulation:
‘The WTO authorized order is supposed to advertise free commerce. It doesn’t and mustn’t accommodate its Member States’ curiosity in selling non-trade aims.’

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Introduction
Roughly half a decade in the past, the worldwide group made its preliminary concerted try at multilateral accords inside the realm of worldwide financial relations. Following the worldwide convention on financial relations that occurred shortly after the Second World Wrm the Bretton Woods System was initially designed so the built-in efforts nu the worldwide group to foster commerce liberalization and multilateral financial cooperation, the builders of this technique believed that the detrimental tariff and commerce insurance policies carried out within the 1930s led to the outbreak of the struggle. They needed to develop a multilateral institutional framework consisting of guidelines and obligations within the financial relations between nations to foster multilateral settlement and keep away from financial battle.
Subsequently, the System was established to comprise three basic worldwide organizations; the IMF, the World financial institution and International Commerce Group (ITO). ITO was the first organ that may cope with the complete vary of commerce points as articulated within the Havana Constitution. Nonetheless, the dearth of political will from america hindered the ITOP and the Havana Constitution from materializing, Consequently, the Basic Settlement on Tariffs and Commerce (GATT) would change into the first worldwide settlement that regulated commerce between nations. GATT attained spectacular success in its 47-year tenure particularly within the discount of world tariff ranges. Nonetheless, it was evident that from the beginning GATT was ill-equipped for dealing with the broad obligation foi regulating the worldwide commerce relations particularly with out making basic enhancements. A few of its major weaknesses included its provisional utility and grandfather rights exceptions, ambiguity within the powers vested on the Contracting Events in making explicit selections and wavering authority, the murky authorized standing of the GATT as a world establishment, challenges in dispute settlement, and the absence of constitutional provisions in GATT which prompted the necessity for continuous innovation and improvisation for desired outcomes to be attained. Nonetheless, as historical past would present, the developments didn’t nonetheless make sure that GATT reaches the worldwide requirements resulting in the institution of the World Commerce Group (WTO) to treatment GATT”s shortcomings.
So far, WTO continues to be the settlement during which its members are inside an built-in, extra viable and sturdy multilateral buying and selling system which constitutes the Basic Settlement on Tariffs and Commerce, the outcomes of the previous commerce liberalization efforts and all of the outcomes from the multilateral commerce negotiations. Notably, even from the straightforward understanding of WTO, it’s evident that its existence is especially on account of its position within the administration of commerce relations between its members. Its historic overview that led to its existence is definitely on issues associated to commerce. Thus, there was a press release indicating that ‘The WTO authorized order is supposed to advertise free commerce. It doesn’t and mustn’t accommodate its Member States’ curiosity in selling non-trade aims.’
This essay seeks to say that the primary goal of WTO has been to advertise free commerce within the completely different member states. Nonetheless, the dialogue can even search to disagree with the second a part of the assertion that the WTO doesn’t and accommodate the non-trade pursuits of its member states. Free commerce is usually a multi-faceted facet whose prosperity doesn’t rely solely on attaining the trade-related aims for its member states but in addition on its non-trade pursuits with different member states.

WTO’s Place As an International Authorized Order and Position In fostering Free Commerce
Based on Article VIII of the WTO Settlement, the group has been awarded a world authorized persona. There’s really no different international group that wanted to reiterate in its structure that it’s a world group however the WTO members felt the necessity to repeat this assertion. Notably, the assertion of this standing brings in quite a few implications. Equally to different worldwide organizations, the group’s competencies are restricted to the specialty precept. The WTO is therefore involved with commerce issues and isn’t supposed to transcend this. From its aims, its pointers and even the established guidelines, it’s evident that the group’s intent and folks relate to upholding worldwide free commerce.
To this impact, the WTO is the multilateral group regulating commerce relations between states. It has a particular tripod goal. First, the group intends to encourage a progressive commerce liberalization and take away the restrictive commerce limitations that members place on imports and exports of each items and providers. These restrictions are identified to distort commerce flows and reduce the general financial well-being and growth. The second goal is that it acts because the negotiating discussion board also called “rounds’ ‘ whereby the members meet to barter the phrases for the commerce liberalization treaties that will probably be binding on all members. Lastly, the WHO intends to avail clear guidelines of engagement for guaranteeing a clear and predictable worldwide commerce, the WTO therefore has established rules which outline and decide respective insurance policies and settlement. The MFN andnational treatmentprinciplesare a very powerful tenets, teh MFN rules stipulated that there ought to be non-discrimination among the many members such atht all menmvers would give and obtain related therapies in terms of tariffs or concessions associated to a particular product. That is the measure that impeded the member states from utilizing inside laws which might be discriminatory on the imports which will adversely impression the discount of tariffs and different methods of commerce liberalization.
Consequently, WTO would succeed within the conclusion of a number of commerce agreements that liberalize commerce between the member states. This success would result in a rise within the quantity of worldwide commerce . The rise has been measured to make up 25% previously eight years. Moreover, there are prospects for additional enhance as a result of extra rounds of negotiation occurring in distinct fields of commerce and providers. The member states have gone on to take care of an financial openness. Subsequently, a rustic comparable to China acceding to the WTO in 2001 had its common tariffs diminished from an estimated 40% in 1985 to beneath 10% at the moment. The elevated openness for the big growing markets has offered room for brand spanking new export alternatives for the nations. It is a constructive indicator for progress. Globalization has been attributed to the emergence and growth of the WTO regime that inspired each free and fewer restricted buying and selling in numerous services, know-how and capital switch in numerous states. The completely different situations comparable to commerce limitations, monetary help, privateness and extra importantly the infringement of mental property rights that had for the longest time impeded the expansion of worldwide commerce have now been dealt with. WTO offers the worldwide avenue for the members to fulfill and deal with the problems in order that methods may very well be established for guaranteeing usually accepted options that may guarantee a easy transition to larger free commerce regimes.
Notably, the WTO settlement really acknowledged that its members should cope with insurance policies and international obligations that transcend commerce. As a real worldwide group, the group now constitutes an built-in and distinctive authorized order. It brings forth a physique of authorized guidelines governing the actions of the member states. The legislative foundation of this group is prime particularly as a result of it has the institutional capability of manufacturing new guidelines, amendments and the implementation of devices, the settlement is definitely a treaty of an estimated 500 pages of textual content with over 2000 pages of scheduled commitments. Moreover, 50 years of GATT follow and selections referred to as the “GATT aquis” have additionally been included within the new WTO treaty Nonetheless within the treaty, the commerce guidelines can be negotiated all the time. As an illustration the Doha Growth Agenda (DDA)_ is a illustration of one of many newest rounds of negotiations. Within the DDA, a variety of points have been made open concurrently to negotiations which might result in the event of latest authorized guidelines.
The authorized guidelines established the built-in system. Subsequently, the WTO settlement has been built-in in a single endeavor to type one coherent entity. A number of provisions have recalled this reality together with Article II:2 which asserts that the multilateral commerce agreements are integral elements of the settlement establishing the WTO and are binding for all member states; that is the explanation they seem inside the annex of the settlement that established the WTO. On quite a few events, the Dispute Settlement Physique had made the affirmation that the members must adjust to all of the provisions within the WTO and the interpretations have to be utilized harmoniously, cumulatively and concurrently,. Subsequently, the WTO treaty is in precise reality a ‘single settlement’ that has been established till an organized authorized order.
The WTO outcomes significantly lie within the tenet on the sovereign equality of nations. Nonetheless, this does not imply that it’s not ready of demonstrating the sort of pragmatism which fruits commerce within the utility of rules established within the conventional worldwide legislation. Equality is especially obvious in decision-making as an example. Formally, the WTO rule is that every nation represents one vote which is not like decision-making in different international financial organizations such because the IMF and World Financial institution. Nonetheless, the follow of taking selections by consensus in now broadly acknowledged within the respective decision-making course of and all of the levels, whereas it’s true that the necessity for consensus led to to particular sluggishness within the nthe negotiations, it does permit all of the members no matter their share in worldwide commerce to precise their views and interact on an equal footing.
The WTO works on having truthful guidelines that may transcend upholding formal equality and set up an actual equality. True equality will exist solely when equal members are concerned, in terms of commerce, the much less developed nations will want explicit flexibilities for the commerce and growth to proceed present with the developed nations. Within the WTO, the growing nations might therefore get pleasure from a lot of non-reciprocal advantages, particularly the particular; and differential therapy provisions. Subsequently,the WTO will be characterised because the classical group whose sphere of competence is restricted, works with consensus and is pushed by its members. It offers with commerce and solely commerce. Nonetheless, additional Assessment will reveal that it does have basic exceptions that acknowledge the correct of the member states to prioritize insurance policies other than commerce, it really permits the commerce obligations that may very well be disregarded once they have been performed in good religion and with no protectionist intent.
WTO’s Ought to Accommodate the Non-Tarade Targets of its Member States.
Aside from understanding the necessary position of the WTO with regard to fostering free commerce between its member states, this dialogue additionally supposed to discredit the second a part of the assertion, ‘The WTO authorized order is supposed to advertise free commerce. It doesn’t and mustn’t accommodate its Member States’ curiosity in selling non-trade aims.’ Typically, the current WTO has already established its personal precedent that does have to be concerned in fostering non-trade aims whether it is to realize the last word goal of worldwide free commerce.
It’s nonetheless necessary to debate what the dialogue can be referring to when it refers back to the non-trade interstate and aims. Based on Thomas Cottier and Matthias Oesch, the non-trade aims seek advice from the opposite legit coverage targets. They argue that the WTO provisions that concentrate on defending its targets have related values because the necessary constitutional rules and therefore are a part of a well-balanced multilateral buying and selling system. His different legit coverage targets will embody the method of accommodating each the commerce and non-trade points. A random search on the non-trade aims factors out to issues comparable to environmental insurance policies, labor insurance policies, competitors, mental property rights, cultural points amongst others. One other practical strategy into comprehending the commerce non-trade aims is to give attention to the precise aims which btech Appellate physique might legally contemplate as they make selections on circumstances. Contemplating that this physique will solely apply the WTO legal guidelines to a case, the mannequin and helpful begin would beto contemplate the values which the WTO authorized system thought of to be the values which will legitimize a deviation from the commerce laws. These can be discovered within the basic exception clauses of the necessary agreements comparable to (Artwork. XX GATT, Artwork. XIV GATS, Artwork. 73 TRIPS), particular exception clauses and the precise references to different values, a glance into these values is also thought of the ‘non-trade ‘ coverage aims that ought to be fostered in relation to the non-trade pursuits of the member states.
One of many recurring themes of the primary ten years of WTO dispute settlement is undoubtedly the connection between the rules of the world buying and selling system and insurance policies aimed toward aims and pursuits that are generally known as “non-trade values”, i.e. atmosphere, well being, labor, and human rights to call however a couple of. The tensions between these aims and the buying and selling system aren’t new, the truth is a few of them are “GATT phantoms” nonetheless haunting the WTO. They’re additionally not restricted to dispute settlement, however have an effect on ongoing negotiations and policy-making within the WTO as properly. What’s new, is the general public consciousness of those tensions and their affect on the notion of the WTO by the worldwide group. Moreover, these tensions reveal some basic and systemic challenges confronted by the WTO regime. In truth, tensions between commerce and non-trade aims and their doable options lie on the coronary heart of the rising system of worldwide financial governance. Because the WTO dispute settlement mechanism is without doubt one of the distinguished options of this technique, it’s greater than acceptable to evaluate the connection of commerce and non-trade aims in gentle of WTO dispute settlement within the final ten years.
One of many necessary students in worldwide industrial legislation, John Jackson, asserted that there’ll come a time when GATT would one time change into a beneficial establishment and therefore the next WTO can be required to be established competently. International financial legislation has been the lens during which one would instill an Assessment of worldwide legislation. For John Jackson, WTO legislation has been the prime illustration of authorized jurisprudential developments impacted by the phenomena within the up to date world. Jackson’s imaginative and prescient on the operate of the WTO was all the time being an establishment that’s perceptive of the modifications that may come particularly as a result of complexities that may come up from globalization of markets, streamlined communication and transport infrastructure. There’s a want for guidelines and establishments to evolve to accommodate the reactions and responses that may come up from the phenomena. The scholar noticed that there’s aneed to think about the non-trade points by way of their connection to commerce insurance policies established below the WTO. The WTO must be thought of an all-powerful establishment that may prosper from having efficient partnerships. Complementarity is significant to responding to the issues inside a globalized and interdependent world. This complementarity will probably be comprehended in two methods. The primary manner is that it implies “externalizing” the foundations of among the commerce and different associated points outdoors the WTO. The second manner is that I additionally name for an “internalizing” inside the WTO, particularly the regulatory approaches in different conventions. The WTO Appellate Physique does have case legal guidelines that lay the inspiration for this strategy. Contemplating the Shrimp-Turtle determination from the Appellate Physique ,it particularly identified the necessity for addressing the WTO legislation inside a wider framework within the worldwide authorized system. A number of WTO agreements do have specific references to the worldwide norms and requirements adopted in numerous fora.
The measures associated to the non-trade aims additionally reveal each the inner or exterior aspects. They’re really a subject of actual curiosity from the Tokyo Spherical even when the contracting events in GATT realized that the first problem to worldwide commerce was not the tariff limitations to commerce however the non-tariff limitations to commerce. It’s prudent to notice the semantic shift that has been occurring all alongside. The trade-restrictive measures that pursue public coverage aims had been considerably thought of to be the commerce ‘limitations’ inside the multilateral buying and selling system. Subsequently, Thai consideration meant the opportunity of them irritating commerce. Notably, a paradigm shift did happen. The commerce restrictive measures that pursue public coverage aims at the moment are not the limitations to commerce however fairly elements of the integral a part of the commerce agenda. Subsequently, reverse to the predominant strategy integrated through the GATT length which survived fairly a length after the institution of the WTO, there must be a cease within the animosity in direction of the non-trade aims. On this context, there’s aneed to undertake a extra constructive tone and make the most of inclusive language such because the non-tariff measures fairly than name them the non-tariff limitations.
The event and implementation of those non-tariff measures would be the fostering of non-trade aims for the member states. The non-tariff measures ought to therefore not function in medical isolation from the WTO’s multilateral buying and selling system. There’s a want for a simpler and environment friendly domestication of those measures inside the WTO system and never be an out of doors a part of it. These measures will deal with the essential WTO issues, the priority ion the place the WTO system encourages or is supportive to adopting these measures is of utmost significance and desires better scrutiny sooner or later. Notably, it’s evident that the encouragement of the WTO in adoption of the measures within the completely different member states will occur to explicit extent. Contemplating the nationwide therapy obligation in Article III of GATT, it may very well be interpreted to be allowing the measures that no matter it being discriminatory, do pursue a legit public coverage goal. There is no such thing as a substantial sense to argue that could be a product is probably harmful for the atmosphere or well being and the product isn’t much like different merchandise, the non-tariff measures which might be pusing public well being or environmental targets ought to be thought of for what they’re, public coverage interventions, they won’t be primarily analyzed in gentle of their impacts in commerce however fairly their impacts on public well being ot on environmental safety amongst others.
That stated, it could be higher to acknowledge that these measures inside the multilateral buying and selling system can be fostered and strengthened by a world company. That is to be performed by worldwide treaties and regulatory instruments which were integrated in different completely different worldwide conventions. Mutual Help within the completely different fiora can be a manner of lessening the tensions. This Help does relate to a necessity and concern to strengthen coherence, balans and interplay between commerce and the general public coverage aims. It’s a part of the group’s rationale since its completely different devices had been integrated such because the Doha Declaration.
The Stability Between the Commerce and Non-trade Targets
Having acknowledged that the WTO does must foster the non-trade aims with an equal significance to the commerce pursuits of its member states, it is very important establish the methods for use by the Appellate physique to stability the 2. The primary manner is thru the notion of necessity. The physique really developed the jurisprudence of balancing the 2 aims by the notion of ‘mandatory’ in Article XX of GATT. famously, the physique established in Korea-Beef that figuring out whether or not measure is important will entail weighing and balancing various factors within the case. This examination can even look into the contribution made by the compliance measure to implementing the legislation or regulation at problem, the significance of the mutual values or pursuits protected by the regulation and the accompanying impact of the legislation on imports or exports, arguably, this means of weighing and balancing that’s wanted on this idea is probably the most basic device for balancing the commerce non-trade pursuits in relation to the member states.
Within the US – Playing and Betting, the Appellate Physique made additional clarifications and refinements on the jurisprudence regarding the mandatory notion and likewise gave some indications on the way to strategy the willpower of the need of a measure. The Appellate Physique rejected the Panel’s determination that the U.S. insurance policies and measures weren’t mandatory as a result of the U.S. might have and may have entered into consultations with Antigua on regulating or decreasing Web playing, a measure which might have been much less commerce restrictive. The Appellate Physique appropriately dominated that this risk was not “moderately out there” to the US, as a result of the outcomes of consultations are unsure and never able to comparability with the precise measures. In analyzing the time period “mandatory”, the Appellate Physique made some fascinating clarifications of its jurisprudence on this problem. The Appellate Physique repeated that the willpower of necessity is an “train of weighing and balancing”. The Appellate Physique urged the next sequence of arguments and determinations for this train. First, the relative significance of the pursuits and values furthered by the challenged measure should be decided. Secondly, the contribution of the measure to the belief of the ends pursued by it, should be thought of. Thirdly, the trade-restrictiveness of the challenged measure should be thought of. On this context, a comparability between the challenged measure and doable options, that are moderately out there ought to be undertaken. Lastly, the outcomes of the comparability between the commerce impression of the challenged measure and of an alternate measure ought to be thought of in gentle of the significance of the pursuits at problem. In different phrases, the extent of significance of the curiosity at stake should be proportionate to the trade-restrictiveness: If the values pursued are “important and necessary within the highest diploma”, even a whole restriction on commerce could also be justified
The Appellate Physique additionally specified when a measure will be thought of moderately out there: “The requirement, below Article XIV(a), measure be “mandatory”—that’s, that there be no “moderately out there”, WTO-consistent various—displays the shared understanding of Members that substantive GATS obligations shouldn’t be deviated from evenly. An alternate measure could also be discovered to not be “moderately out there”, nonetheless, the place it’s merely theoretical in nature, as an example, the place the responding Member isn’t able to taking it, or the place the measure imposes an undue burden on that Member, comparable to prohibitive prices or substantial technical difficulties. Furthermore, a “moderately out there” various measure should be a measure that may protect for the responding Member its proper to realize its desired degree of safety with respect to the target pursued below paragraph (a) of Article XIV.” This assertion is especially necessary as a result of it offers with the Question Assignment recognized within the earlier GATT and WTO jurisprudence. Arguably, GATT and WTO dispute settlement follow urged that greater enforcement prices of the choice measure or an elevated administrative burden aren’t essentially thought of within the context of affordable availability. This is able to, after all, have severe implications on WTO members, particularly growing nations with restricted sources. The Appellate Physique’s ruling within the US – Playing and Betting appears to point that greater enforcement prices or elevated burden don’t per se rule out the provision of an alternate measure. Nonetheless, if the burden turns into “undue”, a measure can’t be thought of moderately out there.
Moreover, it is very important acknowledge that there are different two methods that have to be regarded into additional. The primary is the precept of interpretation in deference to the nationwide regulatory autonomy and the precept of wanting into different related worldwide agreements particularly with regard to decoding the WTO legislation. The interpretation in reference to nationwide regulatory autonomy would imply that the physique makes use of an interpretation that leaves extra space to nationwide autonomy in case there’s ambiguity within the settlement’s phrases. This strategy may very well be based on the notion of in dubio mitius, that refers back to the interpreter selecting the which means that’s the least restrictive to the events sovereignty in case the time period that wants an interpretation has distinct meanings. Within the EC-Hormones, the physique affirmed the significance of the strategy for decoding the WTO legislation and established that in dubio mitius is relevant within the interpretation of treaties in deference to the sovereignty of states. If the which means to a time period is ambiguous, the which means to be thought of is the one that’s much less onerous to the celebration assuming the duty or which is an interference to the territorial and private supremacy ofa celebration or it encompasses much less basic restrictions upon the events. The physique additionally added that it can not merely assume that the sovereign states wanted to impose in them the extra onerous fairly than the much less burdensome obligation.
The third strategy integrated by the physique in accommodating the non0-trade aims and the buying and selling system was identified by the United Nations-Shrimp. The physique gave the interpretation of ‘exhaustible pure sources’ as per Article XX GATT inter alia in reference to the United Nations Conventions on the Regulation of the Sea (UNCLOS), the Conference on Commerce in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), Agenda 21 and a decision adopted along side the Conference on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals. This third strategy can also be what’s utilized by different worldwide agreements in decoding the WTO provisions, there’s substantial debate on who must be a member of the conventions and the way they may very well be appl;uied within the settlement of disputes inside the WTO. Nonetheless there’s consensus that the physique is entitled to utilizing different agreements not less than if all its members together with these which might be a part of a dispute are members of the settlement.
Conclusion
The difficult problem regarding the opportunity of together with non-trade coverage aims, which aren’t explicitly recognised within the fairly restricted lists of aims talked about in Artwork. XIV GATS. If the Appellate Physique is keen it could stretch the boundaries of Artwork. XIV additional than one would initially anticipate on the subject of different worldwide experiences, such because the ECJ and its case legislation on the connection between free motion and fundamental rights, and with references to different worldwide agreements such because the draft UNESCO conference on cultural range. These approaches would after all be much less necessary if the Appellate Physique would interpret GATS commitments and obligations with better deference to nationwide regulatory autonomy. This might scale back the necessity to derive non-trade coverage aims from outdoors the WTO authorized order and incorporate them into that order and would subsequently make the duty of balancing commerce and non-trade coverage aims much less onerous. In spite of everything, balancing commerce and non-trade coverage aims ought to be “no extra burdensome than mandatory.”

Bibliography
Article and Journals
Barton JH, Goldstein JL, Josling TE, Steinberg RH. The Evolution of the Commerce Regime: Politics, Regulation, and Economics of the GATT and the WTO. Princeton College Press; 2008 Jan 27.
Boisson de Chazournes L. WTO and non-trade points: inside/outdoors WTO. Journal of International Financial Regulation. 2016 Jun 1;19(2):379-81.
Cottier T, Oesch M, Fischer TM. International Commerce Regulation: legislation and coverage within the WTO, the European Union and Switzerland: circumstances, supplies and feedback. Staempfli Publishers; 2005.
Cottier T. The WTO everlasting panel physique: a bridge too far?. Journal of International Financial Regulation. 2003 Mar 1;6(1):187-202.
Howse R, Nicolaidis Okay. Legitimacy and international governance: Why constitutionalizing the WTO is a step too far. Effectivity, fairness, and legitimacy: The multilateral buying and selling system on the millennium. 2001;227:243.
J Langille, ‘Neither Structure nor Contract: Understanding the WTO by Inspecting the Authorized Limits on Contracting out by Regional Commerce Agreements’ (2011) 86 New York College Regulation Overview.
John H. Jackson, Sovereignty, the WTO, and the Altering Fundamentals of International Regulation (Cambridge: Cambridge College Press, 2006) 19.
Joost Pauwelyn, Current Books on Commerce and Atmosphere: GATT Phantoms Nonetheless Hang-out the WTO, 15 EJIL 2005, 575 – 592.
Pauwelyn J. The Position of Public International Regulation within the WTO: How far can we go?. American Journal of International Regulation. 2001 Jul;95(three):535-78.
P Malanczuk, Akehurst’s Trendy Introduction to International Regulation (seventh rev. Ed, New York: Routledge, 1997) p. 229
Solanki, G A. ‘Globalization and Position of WTO in Selling Free International Commerce’ (2012) three (1) Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 13
World Financial institution Group and World Commerce Group, ‘The Position of Commerce in Ending Poverty’ (2015) Geneva: World Commerce Group, pp. 13-14.
Case Regulation
United States and Canada (intervening) v Korea, Republic of, Appellate Physique Report, WT/DS161/AB/R, Doc No 00-5347, ITL 006 (WTO 2000), DSR 2001:I, 5, 11th December 2000
Laws
European Communities Measures Regarding Meat and Meat Merchandise (Hormones), WT/DS26/AB/R, WT/DS48/AB/R, adopted on 16 January 1998, para. 165.
The Doha Declaration
U.S. – Requirements for Reformulated and Standard Gasoline, WT/DS2 and WT/DS4, Report of the Appellate Physique adopted on 20 Might 1996, Part IV
US – Import Prohibition of Sure Shrimp and Shrimp Merchandise, WTO Doc. WT/DS58/AB/R, adopted 6 November 1998.

On-line Web sites
M Igbokwe, ‘World Commerce Group and its Position in International Commerce’ accessed 10 December 2021.

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