Posted: May 1st, 2022

Location of HongKong• northern subtropics, betweenLat. 22°08’-22°35

Location of HongKong• northern subtropics, betweenLat. 22°08’-22°35’ N,Lengthy.113°49’- 114° 31’E• northern rimof South ChinaSea–hillyandrugged terrain stretching out tobroad,shallow continental shelf
• Cool dry winter – Northeast monsoon(Taiwan present &Kuroshio>15oC)Sizzling moist summer season – Southeast monsoon(Hainan present + rain)
Location of HongKongHainan Present
Taiwan
Present
NE Monsoon
SE Monsoon
Hong
Kong
Kuro Shio
Location of HongKongESTUARINE TRANSITION OCEANIC
Location of HongKong• japanese facet of Pearl River Delta• gradient of salinity fromeast towest
east – oceanic
center – transition
west – estaurine
• Summer time monsoonal rain freshwateroutflowhalocline &bottomintrusionofhypoxicoceanic water
Present flowpatterninHongKong
Geology of HongKong
Geology of HongKong• Complicated – volanic (50%), granitic(35%),sedimentary (15%) metamorphic(tiny)• On broad shallowcontinental shelf• Final ice age – rise of sea degree, drowningriver basins and isolating former mountainpeaks as offshore islands (>200)
Bathymetry of Hong Kong MarineWaters
Environmental
Traits
• 1,106 km2 land 1,649 km2 sea
• 733 km shoreline 234 islands
• Tidal vary 1-2 m Tidal present zero.5- 1.5knots
SoutheasternExposedrockyshoreline–Steep, exposedgraniticshores withexposedsandybeaches inbetweenSouthwestern
Reasonably uncovered + low
salinity – semi-protected
sandy and muddy shores
NortheasternEnclosedembayment–Protectedsandflats&slopingrockbeachesNorthwestern
Sheltered + river discharge – Mudflats & mangroves
Marine Habitat DiversityinHongKong
Marine Flora andFauna• Distinctive geographic location,
• Subtropical local weather (border between temperate andtropicalzones)
• Wide selection of habitats – rocky, sandy &muddyshores, coralreefs, seagrass beds and mangroves
• All of the above collectively contribute to excessive diversityof marinelife.
Finless porpoise
Neophocaena phocaenoides
Finless porpoise
Neophocaena phocaenoides
Chinese language white dolphin
Sousa chinensis
Marine mammals
• Chinese language white dolphin
Estimated 1300 – 1500 dolphins in East Pearl River &HongKongwaters
Finless porpoise
Estimated inhabitants round south of Hon Kong is 217people
Sea Turtles
• 7 sea turtles species on the planet, 5recordedinHong Kong (tropical & subtropical) –all endangeredLeatherback OliveRidleyGreen Turtle
Loggerhead Hawksbill
Sea Turtles
• Solely the Inexperienced Turtle breeds inHongKongGreen turtle
Marine Fishes
– Hong Kong’s territorial waters (1,650 km2) is only0.05%oftheSouth China Sea (~Three.Four million km2), but it has round30%ofthemarine fish species recorded within the South China Sea. – Over 1000 species (150 industrial, 300+reef fish)
Purple grouper juvenile
Blue reef chromis
RedempororjuvenileCardinalfishYellow finned seabream Set off fish
– Yellow seahorse (Hippocampus kuda), moderatelyabundant within the coral &close by easternwaters(↓7m)- Three-spot seahorse (Hippocampus trimaculatus)- Nice seahorse (Hippocampus kelloggi)
Seahorse
Seahorses
• Data missing (54 species)
• HK Reef examine knowledge : Three species
OrientalseaslugBenthic Fauna• Majority of HK subtidal seabed is gentle, a mixtureof sand&mud.• Composition of the sediment varies &determines thetypeof• 603 marine benthic animal species. Polychaete annelids(47%),crustaceans (14- 18%) and bivalves (11%) are most plentiful,totalover 70% of the whole recorded species. (2001-2003research)SpottedboxcrabBathygobiusfuscusbottom-dwelling organisms. • Essential in nutrient recycling
BranchiostomabelcheriAmphioxus
Tube worm
ale worm
Painted pebble
crab
Banded coral
shrimp
Babylonia areolata
Conus textile
Intidal BenthicFauna• The intertidal zone – a harsh atmosphere withincessant alternationsbetween dwelling above and beneath seawater, intertidal speciesexhibitvarious adaptive physiological and behavioral traits. • Group depends upon the substrate and exposureof theshore- Rocky shores : barnacles, chiton, mussels, oysters, whelks,searoach, crabs, sea urchins and many others. Tetraclitajaponica
Amphibalanus
amphitrite
Acanthopleurajaponica
BrachidontesvariabilisSalmacisspheriodesSaccostrea
cucullata
Capitulum
mitella
Ligia exotica
Thias clavigera
Grapsus sp
Sesamid
crab
Clithon
Fiddler crabBarnacles
Sea urchin ClamTubewormIntidal Benthic Fauna- Sandy shores (floor : horseshoe crabs, crabs, seasnails,Horseshoe crab Sesamid crab Hermit crab
Siphon of burrowing
clam
Sipunculid
worm
Sea cucumberNassarius sp. Pistol shrimpNatica sp. Clithon sp. Starfishclam
wormGreen crab
Intidal BenthicFauna- muddy shores : mudskipper,crabs,razor clams, fanmussel, tubedwelling worms, TerebellidFan mussel
TerebellidwormtubeopeniTerebraliasulcata
Fiddler
crab
Mud skipper
razor clam
Interplay of vitamins and different gasesbetween the benthos and different organisms inthewatercolumn
Parts of a typical gentle bottommacrobenthiccommunityThe situations of benthic organisms, are sessileandtherefore,indicative of time-integrated results of numerous kindsofenvironmental stress. Mudskipper
Adjustments of macrobenthic faunal compositionalong an natural air pollution gradient inthesediment
Traits of the MarineBenthicCommunities inHongKong• Western – estaurine muddyspecies• Victoria Harbour – species adaptedtoeutrophic atmosphere
• Northeastern – comparatively lowecologicalimportance
• Jap and southern – homogeneousincomposition and variety, higherecologicalimportance
Essential Benthic Fauna- Oysters• 12 species described
– Crassostrea hongkongensis &C. ariakensisculturedin Deep Bay
– Saccostrea cucullata dominates eulittoral zoneofsheltered rocky shores round HK.
Essential Benthic Fauna–Pearl OysterPearl oyster (Pinctada margaritifera)
• Pearl oysters beds in sheltered coastal waterse.g.Tolo• Pearl Tradition (Management) Ordinance repealedin1995• Latest cultured in fish tradition zones.
Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda(√)Tachypleustridentatus (√)
Tachypleus gigas
Of the Four species of horseshoe crabs intheworld,3recorded in Hong Kong, however solely 2 livinginHKwatersImportant Benthic Fauna – HorseshoeCrabLimulus
polyphemus
Native distribution ofjuvenilehorseshoecrabs
Sargassum dominant in areas uncovered to
robust waves. • develop quickly from Oct – Could &disappear (die-back) fully fromJun – Sept. • develop as much as 2 – Three m in size
• essential nursery habitats for
juvenile fish and invertebrates e.g. molluscs, echinoderms. offers
shelter and safety
• In Tung Ping Chau, Yan Chau Tong,
Hoi Ha Wan Marine Parks
Benthic Flora
264 species of marine macrobenthic algae (seaweeds) recordedinHong Kong. 82 brown algae, 141 pink algae and 41greenalgae.Prevalence differ seasonally largely in winter or earlyspring.
Seaweeds
Porphyra (Phycocalidia)
• A pink algae. Blades brown to
purplish pink in color. • Grows in decrease intertidal to
higher subtidal rocky shore
uncovered to stronger waves fromDecember to March in japanese
waters. Harvested for meals and bought domestically byfishermeninPo Toi. traditionally considered a Chinesedelicacyin the coastal area.
Ulvafasciata
Ulva lectuca Cladophora
SeaweedsEnteromorpha intestinalis
Particular Coastal &MarineCommunities• Coral communities
• Seagrass communities
• Mangrove communities
• Brackish marsh, intertidal mudflat
G pos.p. r
rapoononi
Coral CommunitiesStony/exhausting corals
– 84 species from 28 genera
hermatypic with zooxanthellae
Favites sp
Platygyrasp.
Coral CommunitiesOctocoral – no stony skeleton, supported by sclerites (67spp)Delicate coral (29 spp),
Gorgonians (26spp), sea pens, sea followers (12 spp) –axial hornyskeletonBlack coral – tree like, black/darkish brown chitin skeleton, (8spp)group
Frequent Delicate coral
Delicate coral
Sea penBlue coral
Black coral at TungPingChauGorgonian at Port Island
Frequent gentle coral
mmon
rgonian
Distribution of Coral inHongKongWaters• Normally immediately connect onto bouldersandbedrockto type scattered fringing coral communitiesalongthe coast
• Remoted coral colonies mainlyinthesub-tidalzoneof the rocky shores round outlyingislands• richest coral communities prevail inthenortheastern waters, free fromtheinfluenceofPearl River
• scattered stony coral communitieshavealsobeenrecorded within the southwesternwaterse.g. SokoIslands
SeagrassbedatSanTauSeagrass communities
– 5 seagrass species (11 ha)
– Unusual/uncommon
Ruppia maritima Halophila beccarii
Halophila ovalis HalophilaminorSeagrassbedinSanTauZosterajaponica
Distribution of seagrass in Hong Kong**
– Eight mangrove species
Acrostichum aureum
Acrostichum aureum
-Eight mangrove species
(~ 510 ha)
Aegiceras corniculatum
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
ExcoecariaagallochaLumnitzeraracemosaHeritieria littoralis
Avicennia marina
KandeliacandelMangroves
Salt glands of
Aegiceras corniculatum“Knee” of roots of
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
Pneumatophores ofAvicinnia marina
AdropperofBruguieragymnorrhizaProp roots of
Kandelia obovata
MangrovesAdaptation
Distribution of Mangroves inHongKong
Different essential coastal habitatsWetland – Brackish marshes, intertidal mudflats&mangrove(5% land space) most efficient atmosphere
Mai Po & Interior Deep Bay (1500 ha.)
– A shallow bay with in depth intertidal mudflatsbackedby mangal, tidal shrimp ponds (gei wais), fishponds,andreed mattress (Phragmites australis)
– Largest mangal and reedbed in HongKong
Mai Po & Interior Deep Bay- Helps excessive range of birds, 440 species(75% of HK hen species)
– essential feeding & resting grounds for migratorybirds,repeatedly helps some 50,000-60,000migratorywaterbirds in winter, essential feeding&restingground.- Sort locality for 13 species of invertebrates(1crabspeciesParasesarma maipoensis discovered nowhere else)- Holds 50 globally threatened species andnear-threatenedspecies (Four critically endangered, 7 endangered)- Housed 25% of the worldwide populations of
Black-faced Spoonbill (Platalea minor), alsoSaunder’s gull (Chroicocephalus saundersi)
Spoon billed sandpiper (Calidris pygmaea)
Different Marine Assets – Mineralsextraction• Salt extraction : Lengthy historical past (1700)
– salt fields in 6 areas [Kung Tong, Tai O(Lantau),SanHui & Wong Ka Wai (Tuen Mun), YimTinTsai(SaiKung), Yim Tin Tsai (Tai Po), YimLiuHa(ShaTauKok)]
– Manufacturing at Tai O peak in 1920- 1930, 70acres1488t/yr. Closed down round 1950- 1960
Different Marine Assets –SandExtraction• Marine sand is a helpful and essential resourceinHongKong. • 1990-2003, ~ 270 tens of millions m3 extractedandusedasmarine fill for reclamation tasks. • Dredging of marine fill for land formation–EIA• Main impacts : – dwelling group destroyed
– SS plume, improve turbidy
– launch of pollution
– disposal of floor mud
• EIAs, bunding throughout filling,
closed grabs for excavation
GPS opening of barge doorways
Marine Sand Assets
Residing house (industrialisation &urbanization)• Reclamations traced again to early Western Han
Dynasty (206 BC – 9 AD), seashores have been turned
into salt pans. • Later conversion of wetland & mangroves into rice
paddi, then into fish ponds in Northwestern NewTerritories
• In mid 19th century land reclamation in coastal
areas for city growth
• 2016, 7000 ha. reclaimed (6% whole), accommodate
27% inhabitants & 70% industrial actions.
Residing house (industrialisation &urbanization)
Reclaimed land in Hong Kong
By Timothy135 – Personal work,CC BY-SA Four.zero,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=100653106
Gray space – reclaimed land19701970-19802003-20051991-19981993-2018
Residing house (industrialisation&urbanization)Pink – city space
Residing house (industrialisation&urbanization)• In 2020, 4th most densely populated metropolis (7140/km2) [afterMonaco(25969/km2), Macau (20821/km2) &Singapore (8155/km2)• With continual influx of people fromMainland, pressurefordevelopment, great demand for housing, great pressuretomorelandsupply. • Marine reclamation easy way out for administrators–nomajorimpacts on existing land use & no need for privatelandresumptionand household resettlement
• a money-making business as the land to be reclaimed, formedandsold will generate a huge revenue for the Government notonlytopay off the infrastructure but also to go into the governmenttreasuryto support other activities. • Impacts irreversible, changes in water flow, alsoonsurroundingcommunities
• Development Plan: Lantau TomorrowVision project, SunnyBay,Lung Kwu Tan, Tuen Mun E&W, Tung ChungNTExt, SiuHoWan

Marine Transportation• Deep water harbour allows vessels to navigatesafely&easily, accommodate ultra large container vesselsatalltides.At Pearl River mouth, linked up with Mainland. • Hub port in the region : one of the top 10busiest containerports in the world. About 310 container liner servicesperweek to around 450 destinations worldwide. Totalcontainerthroughput 18.3 million TEUs in 2020. • Good infrastructure: Kwai Tsing Container Terminalswith9privately owned terminals, non-stop services24hoursaday7 days a week; and a variety of cargo handlingfacilities,handling some 14.5 million TEUs containersin2020representing 80% of the port container throughput.Remaining at mid-stream sites, River TradeTerminal,buoysanchorages, and private piers.
Marine Transportation• Hong Kong Shipping Register 4th largest (Panama,Marshall Is., Liberia) in the world provides qualityservicesto >2 600 vessels gross tonnage > 130 million(Dec2020)• fleet owned or managed by local ship ownersand~800maritime companies. • Judicial independence: ranked 8th among138jurisdictionsaround the world and 1st in Asia. Witha specialistAdmiralty List in the High Court, bilingual professionals,&many arbitration intuitions, ideal for commercialandshipping contract formation &dispute resolution. HongKong is a party to all key International MaritimeConventions. • Hong Kong, a major international financial centre,offersfirst-rate ship finance services. Also low&simpletaxregime.
Marine Transportation• According to the International ShippingCentreDevelopment Index (ISCD) (2020) HKranked4thasaninternational maritime centre trailing Singapore, Londonand Shanghai, with strong presence of shipowners,cargoowners and traders and a vibrant maritimeservicesclusteroffering comprehensive and professional services(shipfinancing, insurance and broking, shipmanagementandmaritime law). • International Chamber of Shipping set upitsChinaLiaison Office in Hong Kong in 2020, whichisthechamber’s first office outside of London. • Persons engaged in HK shipping industry: 49197Total business & incomes : HK$237.5billionTotal seaborne cargo throughput : 161.3milliontonnes(61.3%) (2019)
Communication Space
Undersea cables
• In 2000 the Office of the Communications Authority(OFCA) liberalized external facilities-basedtelecommunications market (open licensingregime)nolimit on the number of external facilities-basedlicenses.• 12- 13 out of 15 major submarine cable systemsintheregion chose Hong Kong as one of their landingsites.Hong Kong – a major telecommunications hubintheregion. • there are 8 submarine cable landing stations, 3atTseungKwan O, 2 at Tong Fuk, and 1each at DeepWaterBay,Chung Hom Kok and Cape D’Aguilar.
Communication Space UnderseacablesLocation of the Cable Landing Stations
Communication Space
(navigation, transport, pipelines, underseacables)
Treatment Type NT Kowloon Hong Kong Is. OutlyingIs. TotalPreliminary /
Screening (>6mm)
0 6 11 17Primary (-70%TSS
& 30%BOD)
0 22CEPT (-80%TSS
& 60%BOD)
3 1 15Major secondary 5 1 6In
19 1 1737Tertiary 0 1*1Total 27 10 13 2068Waste Disposal
• Sewage & waste water (16 Sewerage MasterPlans)- Serve 93% of population (2.8 X10
6m3
/day)
– Various types of treatment facilities
*In Ngong Ping, 2005: reclaimed water in a fish pond for rearingaquariumfish.Minor secondary
Waste Disposal
• Impact of effluent discharge depends onthecurrentanddilution capacity of the water body dischargedinto• 1996 transport of sewage effluent fromToloHarbourtoKai Tak Nullah (improvement of Tolowaterquality)• Harbour Area Treatment Scheme [1994-2001, 2009-2015 (Chemically Enhanced PrimaryTreatment+Chlorination disinfection, + Biological treatment)]
Dumping at Sea Ordinance Cap466(1995)This Ordinance offers for the management of actions that involvethedumping of substances or articles at sea so as topreventdamageto the marine atmosphere. Prohibit dumping of any substances at sea besides :
• Dredged materials
• Sewage sludge
• Fish waste or materials from industrial fish processingoperations• Vessels and platforms or different man-made structuresat sea• Inert inorganic geological materials
• Natural materials of pure origin
• Cumbersome objects primarily comprising iron, metal, concreteandsimilarlyunharmful supplies from small islands
Penalty: 1st conviction – Fantastic $200,000 + 6 monthimprisonment2nd conviction – Fantastic $500,000 + 2 yr. imprisonmentwith high-quality $10000 /day of confirmed continuous operation
Disposal of dredgedmaterial
• Emergency dredging / upkeep dredgingofwatercourse allowed
• Functions for & allocation of marinedisposalspacemade to the Secretary of Marine Fill Committee.• Sediments categorized based mostly on their contaminantlevels(Chemical exams). [Category L, M&H+Biologicaltests]• Disposal websites : Open sea + Outdated burrowpit) / confined(East Sha Chau) [Trailing suction hopper dredgersmustuse a down-a-pipe disposal method, thedesignofwhichmust be approved in advance by DCE. ]
• Cost for personal tasks : 25 March2019Open Sea Disposal HK$1.92/m3
Others HK$96.00/m3
Disposal Websites for Dredged Supplies
Disposal of SewageSludge• Beforehand dumped at sea
• 1995 DSO enacted, largely disposedofat3landfills at South East NewTerritories(SENT),North East New Territories (NENT)andWestNew Territories (WENT). 2007–885t/day,2016 – 126 t/day
• In 2016, a self-sustained SludgeTreatmentFacility (T-Park) has been constructed inTsangTsui,Tuen Mun (2019 – 1200 t/dayfrom11STWsbyvessels / vans) (Max. capability2000tonnes/day, 4000 householdelectricity)
Sludge Therapy Facility (STF) at TsangTsui
Recreation, schooling &tourism• 41 gazetted seashores managed by LCSD(Three momentary closed at current) [
life guard, shark, unsafe]
• 49 different seashores appropriate for swimming• Yacht racing within the harbour
• Snorkeling and diving in japanese waters
• Dolphin watching in western waters
• 6 Marine parks and 1 marine reserve
Power manufacturing• Tidal distinction small, tidal present comparatively weak• Could 2005 CLP proposed offshore wind farm, [EP2009]- 1% HK whole energy era, as much as 200MW, ~80,000households- 67x3MW or 40x5MW generators, 1 offshore transformer platform&submarine cables (5 km east of Ninepin)
– offset 188,000 t CO2
, 595 t SO2
, 265 t NO2 &22t of half.matperyr.- Undecided – price effectiveness
– Scheme of Management Settlement :
1 Oct 2018 to 31 Dec 2033
permitted price of return Eight% of
Common Web Fastened Property
Power manufacturing• 2008 HKElectric proposes a 100 MW(1.5%of whole HKEgeneration) offshore wind farm in Southwest LammaChannel,4kmfrom Lamma Island (50,000 Four-person households inHongKong)[EP 2010]
– 33 wind generators, every Three-Three.6 MW, in a 600-hectaresite- Offset 62,000 t coal;150,000 t CO2
; 520 t SO2
;&240t NO2peryr.- An offshore wind monitoring
station inbuilt 2012
• Scheme of Management
Settlement :1 Jan 2019 – 31
Dec 2033, permitted price of
return Eight% ofAverage Web
Fastened Property for that Yr

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