Posted: December 20th, 2021

Teaching Exceptional Children

Article:
How (and Why) to Write for TEACHING Exceptional Children
Kristin L. Sayeski
First Published December 5, 2017 Other
https://doi-org.ezproxy.liberty.edu/10.1177/0040059917743501

JOURNAL ARTICLE REVIEW INSTRUCTIONS
Article Selection
You will conduct 3 article reviews during this course. You must choose an article from 1 of the professional journals of special education listed below. Each article you choose must written within the last 5 years, relate to individuals with ASD and relate to the textbook readings for the assigned week.

Writing Guidelines
The review should summarize the information found in the article as it relates to the following areas:
1.) Communication
2.) Behavior
3.) Social Skills
Summarized information in each area may directly relate to the article or may be implied based upon supporting information from the course text.
Each review must be 2 pages (excluding title and reference pages) and follow current APA format (including in-text citations and headings). Each article should include at least 2 sources (course text and selected article); however, additional references are encouraged. In-text citations should be included for each of the 3 specified areas and references provide at the end of the review. The review should include an Introductory and Closing paragraph as well as a paragraph for each of the 3 required headings (communication, behavior, social skills).
• The introductory paragraph should provide a brief overall summary for the article and/or study conducted.
• The paragraphs for each of the 3 headings should address information specific from the article regarding the respective heading. Clear links should be made between the article and assigned weekly readings.
• The closing paragraph should include a clear summary of the main points of the article and implications for supporting individuals with ASD.

Class materials:
Looking Ahead: Academic Expectations that Impact Students with ASD Educators of students with disabilities, including the professionals who teach students who have ASD, must consider how national reform and accountability movements impact the education of their students. In 2001, the No Child Left Behind Act resulted in increased educator and student accountability as measured though standardized testing in Grades 3–12. This meant that educators were encouraged to use evidence-based practices (EBPs) to teach students and that ongoing progress monitoring was needed to inform intervention for students that struggled (Yell, Drasgow, & Lowrey, 2005). Now, a new movement will be influencing education in at least 45 U.S. states: The Common Core State Standards (CCSS). The Common Core Standards The CCSS were developed by the National Governor’s Association in 2010 and subsequently adopted by almost all U.S. states for several reasons. First, by providing consistency in expectations across states, educators will have more confidence that students are learning similar content. Additionally, this movement was designed to raise standards in order to improve college and career readiness, and prepare U.S. students for the global workforce. The standards, which can be accessed for online (https://monkessays.com/write-my-essay/corestandards.org/), include K–12 standards for mathematics, and English Language Arts (ELA), which include reading for literature, informational texts, social studies, and science and technical subjects. Writing standards are also included within the ELA standards. The CCSS for each subject includes specific grade-level expectations and “Anchor Standards,” which direct the long-term outcomes that students should attain for high school graduation. By reading the standards online, teachers gain a comprehensive picture of the detailed expectations. However, for this chapter there are a few important strands of the CCSS in different subject areas that will be briefly summarized because they may be especially challenging for students with disabilities. Beginning with reading, there are two notable standards that special educators should be aware of. First, is the expectation that students will be able to independently read complex literary and informational texts with grade-level proficiency and demonstrate comprehension with those texts (Common Core Standards, 2010). Across grades, this standard will influence not only instruction in ELA classes but also reading in content classes, such as science and social studies. A second challenging standard is the Integration of Knowledge and Ideas. This reading comprehension standard suggests that students must read and evaluate the central ideas and themes from variety of texts, analyze arguments and claims in the text, and compare and contrast the themes and relevant information. For students with disabilities, including some with ASD, these standards will pose difficulties. The writing standards also contain challenging expectations that will influence teaching (Graham & Harris, 2013). Students are expected to write for a variety of purposes such as persuasive essays and informational writing and, most importantly, to use writing to convey the knowledge learned and extend comprehension following reading (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2010). The four key strands of the CCSS for writing in K–12 are to write for a variety of purposes, master the production process (planning, revising, rewriting, etc.), produce a product in a single setting on paper or the computer, use research or text to present knowledge and extend learning, and integrate writing daily to expand content learning and comprehension. While these skills are critical to success in high school and college, they present challenges for students with writing difficulties and disabilities who already have trouble with written expression and the cognitive demands needed to write for a variety of purposes and points of view (Graham & Harris, 2013). Success on these standards will depend on quality teaching and using strategies grounded in successful research. In recent years, leading educators have called for mathematics instruction in schools to de-emphasize basic memorization and algorithm practice, and instead, engage students in complex tasks such as deep conceptual learning, problem solving, reasoning, and explaining mathematical thinking to demonstrate problem solving (Jitendra, 2013). Educators and school district personnel can access the complete CCSS for mathematics online (https://monkessays.com/write-my-essay/ corestandards.org/Math), but there are several elements that special educators should understand. First, in the K–12 standards, Geometry is emphasized across all grades. Second, Algebraic thinking and measurement concepts are emphasized heavily beginning in kindergarten to provide students with the early skills and understanding of concepts that will be used in the future, such as elapsed-time problems. It is also important to note that by the time students leave fifth grade, they are expected to be able to divide and multiply fractions (Powell, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2013). Finally, the overarching theme of the standards is that students must not only understand how to solve problems and equations but also be able to think and reason mathematically and express understanding. Students with pervasive math difficulties have historically had problems with telling time (Burny, Valcke, & Desoete, 2012), which will impact elapsed time problem solving which is integral in upper elementary grades. Additionally, some students with math difficulties have trouble solving math problems in general due to language comprehension deficits that interrupt understanding of the question or a path to a solution (Compton, Fuchs, Fuchs, Lambert, & Hamlett, 2012). Finally, reading difficulties can negatively impact word problem solving and these reading difficulties can translate to poor performance (Powell et al., 2013). In summary, to help students with ASD and mathematics difficulty succeed, careful planning, differentiation, and evidence-based instruction will be critical

Academic Outcomes Before specific strategies and educational frameworks are described for improving the performance of students with ASD, it is important to discuss the literature pertaining to the learning outcomes that are common to this population of students and understand their needs. Box 9.1 presents statistics that provide some context to the academic achievement of students with ASD. Then, an explanation of learning considerations based on social and behavioral characteristics will be provided to help educators enhance learning for this diverse group of students. Box 9.1 Trends and Issues Academic Outcomes Statistics from the National Longitudinal Transition Study 2 (NLTS2) pertaining to the long-term outcomes of students with ASD demonstrates the need to improve instruction. Over 50% of students with ASD who left high school in recent years reported that they had not enrolled in college or had been hired for a job (Shattuck et al., 2012). Furthermore, compared to students in other disability categories, students with ASD have experienced some of the lowest rates of postsecondary success (Shattuck et al., 2012). Students with ASD from low-income neighborhoods and with more serious functional impairments are at an elevated level of risk for grim postsecondary outcomes. Reading and mathematics difficulties contribute to these poor outcomes. Researchers found that when rates of literacy growth were compared and graphed for students with different disabilities, students with autism demonstrated slower reading growth curves compared to students with learning disabilities (LDs). Students with autism typically improve in word identification and comprehension between age 7 and 17. However, at 17, word reading ability resembles that of “typically achieving” 10-year-olds and comprehension ability is slightly below a W-score of 500, which is an age equivalence of 10 (Wei, Blackorby, & Schiller, 2011). Mathematics growth statistics are also undesirable. Compared to students with LD, students with autism demonstrated slower growth in math calculation (Wei, Lenz, & Blackorby, 2013). While these unfavorable outcomes do not impact all students with ASD, it is important for educators to be aware of potential academic deficits to provide remediation of academic risk in school and strive to improve the chances for long-term success. Educating a Diverse Group of Students Although students with ASD represent a diverse or heterogeneous group of learners, there are learning and behavioral characteristics that some students with high-functioning autism (HFA) and Asperger’s Syndrome (AS) share according to research (Rourke & Tsatsanis, 2000). For example, many students were observed to have delays in social functioning, including using interpersonal skills to communicate their needs, uncharacteristic body language, and difficulty with interpreting abstract language and verbal directions (Donaldson & Zager, 2010). These traits should be considered when planning lessons, organizing class activities, and communicating with students. There are two other learning-related elements pertaining to students with ASD that can help educators teach content. First, some students can demonstrate extensive knowledge in a specific academic domain or area of interest, but not in others, causing educators to make false assumptions pertaining to the scope or reach of their knowledge (Barrett, 2006). For example, a student with ASD named Michael may enjoy reading books about geography and the biomes on the planet Earth, but demonstrate delayed comprehension ability when reading fictional or literary stories due to the more abstract story structure or a lack of interest. This is related to the theory of weak central coherence. This means that some students with ASD may be successful at attending to small details but have difficulty with understanding the broad implications or main idea of certain topics or concepts (Constable, Grossi, Moniz, & Ryan, 2013). Awareness of this issue can inform instructional planning and should be considered by teachers. A second factor to consider is that some students with ASD interpret language in a literal manner (Donaldson & Zager, 2010). Case Example—This could mean that Amy, a seventh grader with AS, does not understand certain humor, such as idioms used by her teacher such as “You really went to town on that magazine.” This awareness should be considered because it will influence activities such as selecting student partners during collaborative learning, careful thought to how directions are administered, and a realization that although some students with ASD may appear to be noncompliant, they may be having difficulty understanding directions or a social situation. It is also important to make one suggestion about the role of assumptions relating to instructional planning. Educators should not make broad assumptions about the academic needs of students with ASD because ability levels are often diverse, or heterogeneous. Despite the academic statistics previously discussed, such as low reading and math abilities on average, educators of students with ASD realize that this population of learners can be unpredictable in their performance. For example, in a study that analyzed the reading abilities of students with pervasive developmental and Asperger’s Syndrome, results indicated that some children scored extremely high across all components of reading (e.g., fluency, phonics, comprehension), while others had difficulty with basic reading tasks such as phonics and reading fluency (Nation, Clarke, Wright, & Williams, 2006). This suggests that educators of students with ASD should not overgeneralize performance trends and be sure to provide instructional strategies that are differentiated and based on research (Whalon, Al Otaiba, & Delano, 2009). This chapter will now explore the research pertaining to effective teaching practices for students with ASD and explain how these techniques can be implemented

Connecting Research and Practice Accountability movements in the United States, the requirement that students pass standardized tests in content classes to graduate from high school, and the new Common Core State Standards have contributed to the need for educators to use practices based on research. Educators should have confidence that when teaching a new strategy, the technique must have been investigated via quality research designs and replicated with different students (Cook, Tankersley, & Landrum, 2009). However, some educators might be asking, “Where can we actually locate these research-based practices for improving academic and behavioral outcomes for students with disabilities, and specifically, for students with ASD”? This is a valid question because although research is frequently explained in research-oriented journals, many educators do not have the time or training to read and interpret complex research studies. Fortunately, there are teacher-friendly “research to practice” resources that make research and teaching strategies accessible. To provide access to these resources, an Internet Resources table that explains reliable resources and includes a link for each is included at the end of this chapter. Following the summary of teaching practices provided in this chapter, readers are encouraged to explore the resources and learn more, and engage in ongoing investigation of instructional practices for students with ASD. The subsequent section of this chapter is organized according to the following framework. First, for each academic area, a summary of key research is provided. Next, for each component, lesson ideas for improving academic outcomes are described. Due to space limitations, a more comprehensive summary of strategies was not possible. However, the ideas presented are based on promising research, and additional resources are included for educators interested in locating more information Reading The National Reading Panel (2000) identified five critical components of instruction. The first component, which is relevant to educators in Grades K–1, is phonemic awareness (PA). PA is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds in words. For example, you may ask a student, “tell me the three different sounds you hear in the word bat”. Or, “what happens if we change the ending sound in bat to the d sound”? There are many games and lessons that teachers can engage students in to improve their PA skills (see Box 9.2 for ideas and resources). The second reading component is phonics. Phonics is the ability to understand that different sounds correspond with letters of the alphabet (or combinations of letters), and these can be manipulated and blended to read and write words. For example, Mrs. King may have just finished teaching her students that putting c and h together is an example of a digraph sound, and makes the sound common in words like chip, chop, or chomp. Mrs. King could teach her students to use the ch sound to read new or unfamiliar words like chat, or cheat. This can also be done through fun games and lesson activities and reinforced by reading books with students that correspond to the specific phonics rule or concept that was taught, such as a book called “Charlie chomps on a crunchy bag of chips” (see Box 9.2 for PA and phonics tips and resources). The remaining three components may be more familiar to many educators. Fluency, the next component, means to read a text accurately with speed and expression. There are several strategies that teachers can use to help build fluency, beginning in second or third grade. Case Example for Fluency—Mr. Jones, a third-grade teacher wants to improve fluency for his students, so he uses three research-based practices (Vaughn & Thompson, 2004). First, to improve comfort and expression, Mr. Jones leads the class in echo reading. This means that he reads a sentence from a passage, and students repeat the sentence modeling his speed and expression. Next, Mr. Jones tries choral reading of a poem. This means that the class reads the poem together to promote active engagement and practice. Finally, using books at the student’s reading levels based on assessments, he asks students to use the repeated reading strategy. This means that students read the same passage or book several times in a row to increase proficiency. Each time, the teacher emphasizes increasing the speed and improving expression. Mr. Jones occasionally times the students on successive attempts and then shares the time to demonstrate that students improved their speed and accuracy. Vocabulary, the fourth component, is the ability to understand the meanings of words to help students read for understanding. Teachers can provide vocabulary instruction before, during, and after reading to Help with understanding, especially with challenging content area texts. The fifth and final component is reading comprehension. Reading comprehension means to understand the material being read, and apply this meaning to novel situations such as discussion, writing, or other activities. To illustrate these ideas in action, a case example is included after a brief review of research.

Connecting Research and Practice Accountability movements in the United States, the requirement that students pass standardized tests in content classes to graduate from high school, and the new Common Core State Standards have contributed to the need for educators to use practices based on research. Educators should have confidence that when teaching a new strategy, the technique must have been investigated via quality research designs and replicated with different students (Cook, Tankersley, & Landrum, 2009). However, some educators might be asking, “Where can we actually locate these research-based practices for improving academic and behavioral outcomes for students with disabilities, and specifically, for students with ASD”? This is a valid question because although research is frequently explained in research-oriented journals, many educators do not have the time or training to read and interpret complex research studies. Fortunately, there are teacher-friendly “research to practice” resources that make research and teaching strategies accessible. To provide access to these resources, an Internet Resources table that explains reliable resources and includes a link for each is included at the end of this chapter. Following the summary of teaching practices provided in this chapter, readers are encouraged to explore the resources and learn more, and engage in ongoing investigation of instructional practices for students with ASD. The subsequent section of this chapter is organized according to the following framework. First, for each academic area, a summary of key research is provided. Next, for each component, lesson ideas for improving academic outcomes are described. Due to space limitations, a more comprehensive summary of strategies was not possible. However, the ideas presented are based on promising research, and additional resources are included for educators interested in locating more information Reading The National Reading Panel (2000) identified five critical components of instruction. The first component, which is relevant to educators in Grades K–1, is phonemic awareness (PA). PA is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds in words. For example, you may ask a student, “tell me the three different sounds you hear in the word bat”. Or, “what happens if we change the ending sound in bat to the d sound”? There are many games and lessons that teachers can engage students in to improve their PA skills (see Box 9.2 for ideas and resources). The second reading component is phonics. Phonics is the ability to understand that different sounds correspond with letters of the alphabet (or combinations of letters), and these can be manipulated and blended to read and write words. For example, Mrs. King may have just finished teaching her students that putting c and h together is an example of a digraph sound, and makes the sound common in words like chip, chop, or chomp. Mrs. King could teach her students to use the ch sound to read new or unfamiliar words like chat, or cheat. This can also be done through fun games and lesson activities and reinforced by reading books with students that correspond to the specific phonics rule or concept that was taught, such as a book called “Charlie chomps on a crunchy bag of chips” (see Box 9.2 for PA and phonics tips and resources). The remaining three components may be more familiar to many educators. Fluency, the next component, means to read a text accurately with speed and expression. There are several strategies that teachers can use to help build fluency, beginning in second or third grade. Case Example for Fluency—Mr. Jones, a third-grade teacher wants to improve fluency for his students, so he uses three research-based practices (Vaughn & Thompson, 2004). First, to improve comfort and expression, Mr. Jones leads the class in echo reading. This means that he reads a sentence from a passage, and students repeat the sentence modeling his speed and expression. Next, Mr. Jones tries choral reading of a poem. This means that the class reads the poem together to promote active engagement and practice. Finally, using books at the student’s reading levels based on assessments, he asks students to use the repeated reading strategy. This means that students read the same passage or book several times in a row to increase proficiency. Each time, the teacher emphasizes increasing the speed and improving expression. Mr. Jones occasionally times the students on successive attempts and then shares the time to demonstrate that students improved their speed and accuracy. Vocabulary, the fourth component, is the ability to understand the meanings of words to help students read for understanding. Teachers can provide vocabulary instruction before, during, and after reading to Help with understanding, especially with challenging content area texts. The fifth and final component is reading comprehension. Reading comprehension means to understand the material being read, and apply this meaning to novel situations such as discussion, writing, or other activities. To illustrate these ideas in action, a case example is included after a brief review of research. Box 9.2 Research to Practice PHONEMIC AWARENESS PHONICS https://monkessays.com/write-my-essay/readingrockets.org/article/ 377/#pairs1Free lesson activities for pre-K and kindergarten, including breaking up words into segments (e.g., b/a/d/) and phoneme substitution (e.g., “Say bad without the d, or change the d sound to a t for me”). Sequence of phonics skills http://www .phonictalk.com/phonics_steps.phpThis teacher-friendly website provides a framework for the sequential order that phonics skills should be taught so that students master foundational elements before more complex skills are introduced. Rhyming The ability to create rhyming words is a key skill. Teachers should first model rhymes (sit, bit, fit) and then ask students to create additional rhyming words, with corrective feedback. Following this activity, books that reinforce each rhyming pattern can be used. Onset and rime cards Teachers create cards for students to learn word families. The onset cards are the beginning of the word (e.g., bl) and the rime cards contain word endings (e.g., ast, ack, oat, ip). Students move the rime cards to match with the onset to practice new words (bloat, black, etc.). Teachers model and then practice together with feedback, followed by independent practice. This can be done for the various phonics patterns and skills (https://monkessays.com/write-my-essay/readingrockets.org/strategies/onset_rime/). Phoneme segmentation The ability to distinguish or segment different sounds that make up words. First, teachers should assess a student’s ability to do this via free early reading assessments like DIBELS (e.g., http://dibels.org/next.html), and then analyze what types of mistakes were made to target instruction. Matching pictures and words An example of this activity would be to first teach the long vowel i in words like bike, hike, or fight. Then, provide a list of pictures and ask students to circle the pictures that represent a word with the long i sound, while ignoring the pictures that do not portray a word with that sound pattern. Elkonin boxes (Vaughn & Linan-Thompson, 2004). Using a 3 or 4 square chart and small play chips, students identify the distinct sounds in words. Each time the student hears a phoneme in a word spoken by the teacher, the student moves a chip into a separate box. For example, the student would move four chips into boxes for the word “stag, s/t/a/g”. Literature connection Connect phonics rules to books that reinforce skills taught. For example, after teaching consonant digraphs like sh or ch, the teacher reads a book for reinforcement such as “The Chocolate Chip Ship.” During reading, students could put their thumb up when a digraph is identified (https://monkessays.com/write-my-essay/funphonics.com/) A Review of the Research Compared to students with learning disabilities, less research has been conducted for students with ASD in reading (e.g., Gajria, Jitendra, Sood, & Sacks, 2007; Solis et al., 2011). However, in recent years, more research has been conducted for students with ASD and the results are encouraging. Whalon et al. (2009) conducted a review of the literature that analyzed all five components of reading for students with ASD. They found that in 11 studies, students demonstrated improved outcomes when provided intervention. It was discovered that phonics instruction resulted in improved reading skills for students with ASD, and explicit and systematic instruction (e.g., clear procedures, modeling, guided practice) should accompany instruction (Whalon et al., 2009). Another key finding was that providing time for students to practice reading fluency using research-based practices (see Case Example for Fluency above) resulted in fluency gains. At the time (2009), there was less published research for comprehension. However, recent research has expanded on comprehension interventions such as using compare/contrast interventions, graphic organizers, and question generation routines for improving comprehension of narrative and expository text. In summary, although the research is emerging, when interventions have been conducted in reading for students with ASD, the ability of these students to read effectively improved. Next, a framework based on this research will be provided for vocabulary and comprehension. The subsequent section describes a sample lesson framework based on research that can be used in Grades 4–12 to help students to learn vocabulary and to read for comprehension. A Lesson Framework for Reading Instruction The following framework is a case example of how teachers can facilitate reading achievement for a group of 4 seventh graders with ASD who experience reading difficulties. Case Example – Vocabulary and Comprehension Before Reading Strategies Before reading, Ms. Jordan engages students in activities to learn vocabulary and build background knowledge. The passage students will read is an expository passage about important inventions from the Industrial Revolution period. To engage students, Ms. Jordan asks students to identify several of their favorite items (computers, IPADS, sneakers). For 5 minutes, students discuss ways that the items might have been developed to improve people’s lives. Next, a 3-minute video about the growth of factories during the Industrial Revolution is shown. Vocabulary is taught next—the teacher provides words, definitions (e.g., manufacturing), and a picture related to each word. The students read each word and definition chorally, and then turn to a partner to discuss a prompt related to the word. For example, “turn to your partner and explain what manufacturing means. Then explain one product that your family uses that is built through a manufacturing process.” Finally, the teacher and students preview the text and the teacher draws attention to the difficult proper nouns. This is done so that the words are familiar during reading. Pictures, subheadings, and graphs are also reviewed and discussed (Hairrell et al., 2011). Students then make predictions based on their preview and background knowledge pertaining to what they might discover. During Reading Strategies Students are paired with a partner, and asked to read the two-page text on the Industrial Revolution. Students alternate paragraphs to maximize engagement and provide feedback for word reading errors. The teacher also visits with groups to facilitate and check for engagement. Pre-made cards that contain prompts for questions the students can ask after reading every two paragraphs can be created by teachers (Whalon & Hanline, 2008). This promotes active engagement and main idea identification. For example, the cards might ask “What the main idea of the paragraph was?”, “What the most interesting fact they learned was?”, and “Which details support the main ideas?” After Reading Strategies After the students finish reading, Ms. Jordan asks literal and inferential questions of students to probe for understanding, such as “What are the names of two inventors that you read about? What did they create?” Or “Which invention do you think helped make people live more comfortable? Explain why.” Next, to teach Ms. Jordan leads students in the Get the Gist strategy (Klingner, Vaughn, & Schumm, 1998). For three sections of text identified by the teacher, the students must identify the most important who or what from that section, then three important details about the who or what, and then write a sentence using these ideas that captures the main idea. Ms. Jordan first models the process and then provides guided support as the students use Get the Gist. In several weeks, the students will be able to accomplish this task independently. Writing The research for enhancing writing outcomes in students with ASD is limited compared to research with students in other disability categories. Research to support writing skills in students with ASD, such as sentence and paragraph composition, grammar and punctuation, and other genres like persuasive writing, is necessary to help students meet standards (e.g., Graham & Harris, 2013). Teachers are encouraged to teach foundational writing skills to foster grade-level writing expectations and meet the writing expectations of the CCSS (Graham & Harris, 2013). To facilitate success, an instructional framework that includes modeling, guided practice, and independent student practice is recommended. Writing Case Example—Ms. Hanson wants to teach 2 fourth-grade students with high functioning autism to compose a complete paragraph since they have recently mastered sentence writing proficiency. First, Ms. Hanson displays examples of paragraphs to demonstrate the different elements (topic sentence, three supporting details, and a conclusion). Next, she shows students how she integrates a graphic organizer for planning. Ms. Hanson and her students will now use a graphic organizer to plan and compose a paragraph about a field trip to a science museum (see Figure 9.1). After working collaboratively on planning and practicing paragraph writing with teacher Helpance for 2 weeks, the students begin independent practice using the graphic organizer to plan and subsequently write paragraphs related to prompts, and recent books they have read. Visual supports in the form of a graphic organizer are important for students with ASD (Constable et al., 2013). Ongoing feedback and support to facilitate independent writing proficiency and generalization of acquired skills will also be important for Ms. Hanson’s students. Ideas and Resources for Effective Writing Instruction A recent literature review demonstrated that writing interventions for students with disabilities other than LD are associated with increased written expression (Taft & Mason, 2011). One strategy with encouraging research for students with ASD is self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) (Asaro & Saddler, 2010; Delano, 2007). SRSD research suggests that persuasive writing in middle school students improved with SRSD (Delano, 2007). Furthermore, narrative writing skills with elementary students with ASD improved after explicit instruction in the SRSD framework (Asaro & Saddler, 2009). Detailed procedures for SRSD can be accessed via the web links provided in Box 9.3. SRSD consists of six stages of instruction. The stages are developing background knowledge, discussion, modeling the strategy, memorizing the strategy, providing support, and independent practice (Asaro & Saddler, 2010). The following resources should be accessed for teachers who are seeking to learn about SRSD to improve essay writing for students with ASD and writing difficulties. Figure 9.1 Pre-Writing Graphic Organizer Box 9.3 Self-Regulated Strategy Development RESOURCE DESCRIPTION SRSD RESOURCE The National Center on Accelerating Student Learning provides detailed information on SRSD that includes a comprehensive description, lesson plans, and the materials (graphic organizers and mnemonic charts) that accompany the lessons. http://kc.vanderbilt.edu/casl/srsd.html The IRIS Center from Vanderbilt University contains professional development modules and resources for teachers for writing, reading, and mathematics. The SRSD module includes step-by-step instructions for teachers and realistic examples of implementation. http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/srs/chalcycle.htm Mathematics In the introduction of this chapter, the CCSS expectations in relation to mathematics were summarized. Essentially, mathematical reasoning, conceptual learning, and problem solving are emphasized by contemporary standards (Jitendra, 2013). The emphasis on higher-level thinking skills, however, does not suggest that mastery of foundational skills (e.g., subtraction, subtraction with regrouping, and multiplication) should be overlooked. After basic skills are established, students can apply their knowledge to more advanced tasks. Teachers should employ strategies that can introduce students to abstract concepts, while still focusing on foundational skills such as algorithms and fact fluency (Donaldson & Zager, 2010). Explicit and strategic instruction with multiple opportunities to practice should be integrated. Recent research (e.g., Donaldson & Zager, 2010; Rockwell, Griffin, & Jones, 2011) provides insight into techniques that educators can integrate to improve mathematical skills. Several examples are explained in the subsequent section. Ideas for Effective Mathematics Instruction Direct and explicit instruction is an effective technique for teaching concepts and skills to students with difficulties or disabilities (Donaldson & Zager, 2010). This means that educators use assessment and progress monitoring results to identify the specific deficits that students have. After targeting skills requiring instructional support, teachers employ multiple demonstrations for performing an operation (e.g., subtraction with regrouping). After repeated examples, students practice the skill or operation with feedback. This means that correct responses are rewarded, and when incorrect responses occur, the teacher redirects students and provides Helpance. This has been effective for students with disabilities for computation and problem solving (Houten & Rolider, 1990; Wilson & Sindelar, 1991). Direct instruction principles can be used for introducing all new skills such as telling time, elapsed time, and fractions. Another strategy recommended for students with high-functioning autism and Asperger’s Syndrome is concrete-representational abstract (CRA) for teaching fractions (Donaldson & Zager, 2010). An example of CRA would be to show students a concrete example of a concept, such as two halves of a pie. Next, a mathematical representation such as two halves of a rectangle is demonstrated. Finally, the teacher introduces the abstract representation of the concept, such as the fraction ½. This can be used with easier to more complex concepts through the same three-step process. CRA has been successful for teaching other mathematical concepts such as algebra (Witzel, 2005). Connecting literacy experiences to mathematical concepts is another option that educators can consider to support mathematical understanding. In the primary grades, teachers can select books to read to the class as a shared story experience that is associated with a mathematical concept that the class is currently working on (Courtade, Lingo, Karp, & Whitney, 2013). For example, a children’s picture book that describes two children counting money to buy ice cream could reinforce the concept of identification of denominations and basic addition. Another example is the book How Big is a Foot (Myller, 1990)? This story supports measurement of inches and feet and basic fractions. In summary, using books to teach mathematics can support mathematical vocabulary of concepts, depict concrete examples of the topics taught in math lessons, and serve as a springboard for a subsequent math activity (Courtade et al., 2013). Differentiating and Modifying Instruction A theoretical framework called Universal Design for Learning (UDL) has influenced numerous educators and students. UDL is a broad framework intended to improve academic outcomes and student engagement in learning that entails several key principles designed to guide instruction and planning. The National Center on UDL delineated key elements for educators to factor into their instructional planning to facilitate improved student learning (https://monkessays.com/write-my-essay/udlcenter.org/aboutudl/udlcurriculum). The first component is goal setting, to help students become active learners and achieve learning outcomes for a specific academic purpose, such as to improve problem-solving ability or higher-level thinking. Differentiation of methods is the second principle designed to help students attain goals. Differentiation of methods can include technological integration, environmental adaptions, or other processes that make the lesson comprehensible. The third component is the integration of tools to facilitate learning, such as content enhancement tools to provide background information, integration of media and technology, and other mechanisms to present content to students clearly (Rose & Meyer, 2000). Assessment is the final component defined by the National Center on UDL. Teachers can implement various assessments to collect information to inform instruction. Additionally, educators are encouraged to offer flexibility of assessments based on student’s need, such as allowing an oral examination for a student who frequently demonstrates externalizing behavioral problems when writing. Teachers of students with ASD can use the theoretical framework of UDL to differentiate teaching and deliver intervention. Differentiated Instruction Differentiation of instruction and materials can enhance the achievement of students with disabilities and promote meaningful learning (Landrum & McDuffie, 2010). If properly implemented, differentiation via principles of UDL can foster grade-level curriculum access and momentum toward the attainment of goals on Individualized Education Plans (IEP). A case example is used to demonstrate how principles of UDL and differentiated instruction can be implemented in middle school for a student with autism. Case Example—Appropriate Differentiation: Marco, a ninth grader with autism, has a fifth-grade reading level according to benchmark assessments administered to all students at the beginning of the year. Marco enjoys learning on the computer, completing written assignments on the computer, but becomes easily frustrated and sometimes refuses to complete class assignments if extensive writing is involved. Marco’s IEP goals are to write a multiparagraph essay and identify main ideas and compose a summary following reading with above 80% accuracy. Marco’s teacher, Mrs. Huerta, carefully considers his academic goals as well as his learning and behavioral characteristics to effectively teach Marko. For example, to help Marco achieve his IEP goals, while accessing grade-level content for the upcoming science unit on “Heat”, Mrs. Huerta does the following: first, to introduce Marco to a crucial term, convection, she provides the definition and they proceed to read from a fifth-grade science book to foster background knowledge, because she knows that providing alternate texts on a related topic can improve comprehension (Fenty & Barnett, 2013). As they read, Mrs. Huerta and Marco work together to apply the main idea strategy called Get the Gist to identify main ideas and a graphic organizer to highlight the main ideas used to generate a summary sentence (Klingner et al., 1998). Mrs. Huerta also shows Marco a 5-minute video that depicts thermal energy and the movement of gases in the environment. The following week, when Marco’s class learns about convection in his inclusive science class, Marco feels comfortable because he has background information on this topic. The class reads a grade-level passage, but considering his reading difficulties, Marco is paired with a student that has eighth-grade reading skills. They engage in a process where the stronger reader reads the passage initially as Marco follows along, followed by Marco reading the passage the second time with corrective feedback provided (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Burish, 2000). After reading, the class answers questions. The teachers allow students, including Marco, to use an iPad or computer to answer the questions to offer flexibility during the assessment process. In summary, while the case example of Marco certainly does not provide the entire scope of possible differentiation and UDL ideas, it integrates several concrete examples of how teachers can differentiate learning and use pre-teaching to promote access of grade-level content. Quality Resources and Professional Development This chapter concludes with the final topic pertaining to effective academic instruction: ongoing professional development and resources for educators. Research to Practice Opportunities Frequently reading research to practice articles is a proactive method for remaining current about new teaching and intervention practices for students with ASD. Although school districts and universities are other sources for information, educators can obtain new strategies by reading several peer-reviewed journals that are written for educators. Although the following suggestions are not a comprehensive list, the following journals frequently contain strategies for teaching students with ASD: Intervention in School and Clinic, Teaching Exceptional Children, and Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. Attending professional conferences that describe instructional practices for students with ASD is another method for learning new information about teaching and intervention. Becoming a member of professional educational organizations such as the Council for Exceptional Children or the Division on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities is another way to gain access to trends, issues, and current research. In summary, staying informed and receiving ongoing professional development can be beneficial for becoming a more capable educator, and improving academic instruction for students with autism

Article information

Article Information
Volume: 50 issue: 3, page(s): 115-122
Article first published online: December 5, 2017; Issue published: January 1, 2018

Kristin L. Sayeski
Corresponding Author: Kristin L. Sayeski, Communication Sciences and Special Education, University of Georgia, 517 Aderhold Hall, GA 30602-7153 (e-mail: ksayeski@uga.edu).
Teaching Exceptional Children

In this study, Sayeski carries out a critique and a detailed analysis of national reforms and accountability movements that are being adopted which influence learning outcomes and processes. There are different ways in which learners (particularly those with disabilities) are affected by the policies that inform the national reforms being adopted and this article focuses on both the benefits and the disadvantages of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) that has been newly implemented in a vast majority of the states in the nation (Sayeski, 2018). Apart from CCSS, the No Child Left Behind Act is briefly mentioned which allows readers to understand the mindset and basis behind the formulation of these national reforms and accountability movements (Sayeski, 2018). As much as they are meant to enhance the learning process, they affect learners differently, particularly those with disabilities such as ASD. Analysis and reviewing this article by Sayeski entails showcasing how the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) has negatively affected students with autism in relation to communication, behavior, as well as social skills.
To begin with, students with ASD are characterized by the inability to develop communication skills properly. The process of developing cognitive communication skills is impaired meaning that they have to receive extra askance from teachers to adopt these skills and implement them appropriately. There are a set of standards that are recommended by the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) which are hard to meet for learners with autism due to their condition. CCSS, according to the study, dictates that the learners should be able to read independently and demonstrate comprehension. Reading and comprehension are part of the communication process. Thus, the policy affects them in that special educators are tasked with a tough responsibility of making sure this standard is met across grades. It is fair to note that learners with ASD need more time and the national reform (CCSS) is tasking teachers with impossible goals making it diffcult to fulfill this role. Such a national reform implies that communication skills are not adequately taught to students with ASD.
There is also impaired development of behavioral skills that are characteristic with normal development dynamics. Students with ASD require special attention that is to be subjected by special educators. CCSS does not accommodate specific teaching techniques that are to be adopted by the special educators dealing with students who have ASD. This national reform focuses on written expressions that are reflective of cognitive demands by the students. However, there are behavioral deficiencies that need to be addressed by teachers who are not accommodated by the accountability movement (Chiang, 2018). Thus, the study proposes a revision of the measures being advocated teachers to allow behavioral modification. In so doing, the teacher can have more influence on the students in the attainment of behavioral change.
Regarding social skills, ASD is associated with the inability of individuals to develop social interaction skills. CCSS is a valid national reform, according to the article, as it allows learning considerations which will enable the diverse category of students (those with ASD) to develop social and behavioral characteristics (Hakami et al., 2018). Therefore, they can interact better with others as they can properly relate to social cues such as jokes. Social functioning for this group of students is allowed with the adoption of CCSS since they can develop interpersonal skills that they learn. Interpreting abstract language is made easier for them. Although there is more that can be done, according to the assertions made by Sayeski, the national reform, and accountability movement is proving helpful.
All the same, the study seeks to justify the use of CCSS (that has been newly adopted) in helping students with ASD. It manages to highlight the areas of weakness in addition to advantages that come with its use. All in all, students with autism are a special category, and they require extra attention as well as learning consideration to make learning more effective.

References
Chiang, H. M. (Ed.). (2018). Curricula for Teaching Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Springer.
Hakami, M. H., Isa, Z. M., & Khairani, A. Z. (2018). Teaching Students with Disabilities in Mainstream Schools Dealing with Students with ASD and Students with ADHD Challenges. Advanced Science Letters, 24(1), 236-238.
Sayeski, K. L. (2018). How (and Why) to Write for TEACHING Exceptional Children. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 50(3), 115-122.

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